About Giza:
This is one of the major tourist attractions for Egypt, and a monumental heritage site for the world.
This Necropolis is located in the immediate vicinity of the southwestern suburbs of modern Cairo, where a group of pyramid complexes of the 4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BC), comprising those of KHUFU, KHAFRA and MENKAURA, are located. The Giza plateau cannot be regarded as fully explored, but the earliest known monument is MASTABA v, which probably dates to the reign of the 1st-Dynasty ruler DJET (c.2980 BC). The name of the owner of the tomb is unknown, although the presence of the graves of fifty-six retainers suggests that he or she was an important member of the Early Dynastic elite. Jar-sealings bearing the name of the 2nd-Dynasty ruler Nynetjer (c.2800 BC) have also been found in a tomb to the south of the main necropolis.
Khufu (2589-2566 BC) - whose father SNEFERU (2613-2589 BC) had erected the first true pyramid - built the largest surviving pyramid, now usually described as the Great Pyramid but originally called 'Khufu is the one belonging to the horizon’ It was constructed from some 3,200,000 blocks of limestone, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons, and it differs from most pyramids in having burial chambers within the built structure and a third unfinished chamber below ground. From each of the two upper chambers, narrow sloping tunnels were constructed; these so-called 'air shafts' probably had little to do with ventilation, and for some time it has been accepted that they may have some astronomical function. In 1993 a German team led by Rudolf Gantenbrink and Rainer Stadelmann, using a robot camera, discovered a sealed door in one of the shafts from the Queen's chamber, which has led to speculation that a fourth chamber might be located there.
It has been suggested that in the original design of the Great Pyramid there was to have been a subterranean burial chamber, but that must have been abandoned at an early stage of the work, since it is only partly hewn. When first recorded the chambers were found empty, perhaps having been robbed as early as the First Intermediate Period (2181 -2055 BC) when the central authority, which had been responsible for their construction, collapsed.
Like all pyramids, that of Khufu was part of a complex, of which the three subsidiary pyramids (the so-called queens' pyramids) are the most obvious part. The temple on the east side is ruined, and the causeway leading to the valley temple has been robbed out and lost beneath the modern settlement of Nazlet el-Simman. Several boat-pits surrounded the pyramid, and boats have been found in two of these. One has been reconstructed and is currently displayed close to the site of its discovery. It has been argued that these boats were used in the funerary ceremonies, and that perhaps one of them bore the king's body to the valley temple. However, it is equally likely that they performed a more symbolic role, as part of the funerary equipment provided for the travels of the decease king with the sun-god.
Like the other true pyramids, at this site and elsewhere, the superstructure of the Great Pyramid would not originally have been uneven but covered by a layer of smooth white Tura limestone, probably crowned by gold sheet at the apex. This covering was stripped away in medieval and later times. The burial of HETEPHERES, the mother of Khufu, lies just to the east of the pyramid and gives some indication of the riches which might have accompanied a pharaoh of this period.
Although Khufu's immediate successor, Djedefra (2566-2558 BC), began to construct a pyramid complex at ABU ROASH 8 km north of Giza, he may have been responsible for some quarrying at Giza, and some scholars have attributed work on the Great SPHINX to him, although this sculpture is usually assigned to the reign of Khafra (2558-2532 BC), builder of the second of the Giza pyramids. The sphinx is carved from a knoll of rock in a quarry beside Khafra's causeway, which leads from his well-preserved granite valley temple to the mortuary temple on the eastern side of his pyramid. Statues of the king, his head symbolically protected by HORUS (now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo), were discovered by Auguste Mariette's workmen in 1860, during the excavation of the valley temple.
The site of the pyramid itself is on a slight eminence; and for this reason, and by virtue of its still preserving some of its limestone casing at the apex; it appears larger than that of Khufu. In ancient times the monument was known as 'Great is Khafra', and is more typical of Old Kingdom pyramid design, with its subterranean burial chamber. On the north and west sides it shows clear evidence of the quarrying necessary to level the site, the removed stone being used for the construction itself.
The smallest of the three pyramid complexes at Giza is that of Menkaura (2532-03 BC). Unlike its predecessor, the valley temple was not of granite but finished in mud-brick. However, it was here that a series of superb schist triad statues were discovered by the Harvard/Boston expedition in 1908. They represent the king with HATHOR, goddess of MEMPHIS, and NOME deities. Like the pyramid of Khafra, that of Menkaura had its lowest courses cased in red granite, and like its predecessor had the chambers below the built structure. Unlike the other pyramids at Giza, however, 'Menkaura is Divine’ had palace-façade carving on its interior walls. This pyramid was the subject of SAITE interest in the 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC), when a new wooden coffin was inserted. In 1838 the original granite sarcophagus was lost at sea while being transported to England, although the wooden coffin lid is in the British Museum.
The pyramid complexes are surrounded by groups of MASTABA tombs, in which members of the royal family and high officials were buried. The most extensive mastaba cemeteries are arranged in regular 'streets' to the west, south and east of the pyramid of Khufu, each tomb being of a similar size. The earliest private tombs at Giza are cut into the quarry faces surrounding the pyramids of Khafra and Menkaura. During the New Kingdom there was renewed activity at Giza. In the 18th Dynasty Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BC) built a temple to Horemakhet ('Horus of the Horizon’) near the Great Sphinx, and this was later enlarged by Sety I (1294-1279 BC) in the 19th Dynasty. During the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 BC) the southernmost of the subsidiary queens' pyramids in the Khufu complex was converted into a temple of Isis. In the 26th Dynasty the pyramid of Menkaura was restored, the temple of Isis was enlarged and a number of tombs were constructed along the causeway of Khafra, an area which continued to be used as a cemetery as late as the Persian period.
This is one of the major tourist attractions for Egypt, and a monumental heritage site for the world.
This Necropolis is located in the immediate vicinity of the southwestern suburbs of modern Cairo, where a group of pyramid complexes of the 4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BC), comprising those of KHUFU, KHAFRA and MENKAURA, are located. The Giza plateau cannot be regarded as fully explored, but the earliest known monument is MASTABA v, which probably dates to the reign of the 1st-Dynasty ruler DJET (c.2980 BC). The name of the owner of the tomb is unknown, although the presence of the graves of fifty-six retainers suggests that he or she was an important member of the Early Dynastic elite. Jar-sealings bearing the name of the 2nd-Dynasty ruler Nynetjer (c.2800 BC) have also been found in a tomb to the south of the main necropolis.
Khufu (2589-2566 BC) - whose father SNEFERU (2613-2589 BC) had erected the first true pyramid - built the largest surviving pyramid, now usually described as the Great Pyramid but originally called 'Khufu is the one belonging to the horizon’ It was constructed from some 3,200,000 blocks of limestone, each weighing an average of 2.5 tons, and it differs from most pyramids in having burial chambers within the built structure and a third unfinished chamber below ground. From each of the two upper chambers, narrow sloping tunnels were constructed; these so-called 'air shafts' probably had little to do with ventilation, and for some time it has been accepted that they may have some astronomical function. In 1993 a German team led by Rudolf Gantenbrink and Rainer Stadelmann, using a robot camera, discovered a sealed door in one of the shafts from the Queen's chamber, which has led to speculation that a fourth chamber might be located there.
It has been suggested that in the original design of the Great Pyramid there was to have been a subterranean burial chamber, but that must have been abandoned at an early stage of the work, since it is only partly hewn. When first recorded the chambers were found empty, perhaps having been robbed as early as the First Intermediate Period (2181 -2055 BC) when the central authority, which had been responsible for their construction, collapsed.
Like all pyramids, that of Khufu was part of a complex, of which the three subsidiary pyramids (the so-called queens' pyramids) are the most obvious part. The temple on the east side is ruined, and the causeway leading to the valley temple has been robbed out and lost beneath the modern settlement of Nazlet el-Simman. Several boat-pits surrounded the pyramid, and boats have been found in two of these. One has been reconstructed and is currently displayed close to the site of its discovery. It has been argued that these boats were used in the funerary ceremonies, and that perhaps one of them bore the king's body to the valley temple. However, it is equally likely that they performed a more symbolic role, as part of the funerary equipment provided for the travels of the decease king with the sun-god.
Like the other true pyramids, at this site and elsewhere, the superstructure of the Great Pyramid would not originally have been uneven but covered by a layer of smooth white Tura limestone, probably crowned by gold sheet at the apex. This covering was stripped away in medieval and later times. The burial of HETEPHERES, the mother of Khufu, lies just to the east of the pyramid and gives some indication of the riches which might have accompanied a pharaoh of this period.
Although Khufu's immediate successor, Djedefra (2566-2558 BC), began to construct a pyramid complex at ABU ROASH 8 km north of Giza, he may have been responsible for some quarrying at Giza, and some scholars have attributed work on the Great SPHINX to him, although this sculpture is usually assigned to the reign of Khafra (2558-2532 BC), builder of the second of the Giza pyramids. The sphinx is carved from a knoll of rock in a quarry beside Khafra's causeway, which leads from his well-preserved granite valley temple to the mortuary temple on the eastern side of his pyramid. Statues of the king, his head symbolically protected by HORUS (now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo), were discovered by Auguste Mariette's workmen in 1860, during the excavation of the valley temple.
The site of the pyramid itself is on a slight eminence; and for this reason, and by virtue of its still preserving some of its limestone casing at the apex; it appears larger than that of Khufu. In ancient times the monument was known as 'Great is Khafra', and is more typical of Old Kingdom pyramid design, with its subterranean burial chamber. On the north and west sides it shows clear evidence of the quarrying necessary to level the site, the removed stone being used for the construction itself.
The smallest of the three pyramid complexes at Giza is that of Menkaura (2532-03 BC). Unlike its predecessor, the valley temple was not of granite but finished in mud-brick. However, it was here that a series of superb schist triad statues were discovered by the Harvard/Boston expedition in 1908. They represent the king with HATHOR, goddess of MEMPHIS, and NOME deities. Like the pyramid of Khafra, that of Menkaura had its lowest courses cased in red granite, and like its predecessor had the chambers below the built structure. Unlike the other pyramids at Giza, however, 'Menkaura is Divine’ had palace-façade carving on its interior walls. This pyramid was the subject of SAITE interest in the 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC), when a new wooden coffin was inserted. In 1838 the original granite sarcophagus was lost at sea while being transported to England, although the wooden coffin lid is in the British Museum.
The pyramid complexes are surrounded by groups of MASTABA tombs, in which members of the royal family and high officials were buried. The most extensive mastaba cemeteries are arranged in regular 'streets' to the west, south and east of the pyramid of Khufu, each tomb being of a similar size. The earliest private tombs at Giza are cut into the quarry faces surrounding the pyramids of Khafra and Menkaura. During the New Kingdom there was renewed activity at Giza. In the 18th Dynasty Amenhotep II (1427-1400 BC) built a temple to Horemakhet ('Horus of the Horizon’) near the Great Sphinx, and this was later enlarged by Sety I (1294-1279 BC) in the 19th Dynasty. During the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 BC) the southernmost of the subsidiary queens' pyramids in the Khufu complex was converted into a temple of Isis. In the 26th Dynasty the pyramid of Menkaura was restored, the temple of Isis was enlarged and a number of tombs were constructed along the causeway of Khafra, an area which continued to be used as a cemetery as late as the Persian period.
The Bent PyramidThe Bent Pyramid was probably the first planned from the outset to be a true pyramid, with smooth sides. This represents a glorious period in the evolution of the pyramid, comparable to that when Djoser’s architect, Imhotep, built the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. The Bent Pyramid was probably either the first or second of Sneferu’s pyramids, depending on who built the Medium Pyramid. It was almost certainly built prior to his other project at Dahshur, the Red Pyramid. The pyramid is also sometimes called the Rhomboidal, False, or Blunt Pyramid. The ancient Egyptians called it "Sneferu Shines - South (pyramid)".
The ground plan of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur in Egypt Even with all of this investigation, some Egyptologists believe that the pyramid may still hold a few secrets. Some question whether all of the pyramid's chambers have actually been located. Investigation of the pyramid was sometimes difficult, because wind created a strong draft blowing through the passageways. This so hindered the archaeological studies that work was sometimes interrupted. However, these problems occurred even prior to the discovery of the walled in western entrance, so some current Egyptologists wonder how the draft was vented, and leading them to speculate that other rooms or passageways might remain undiscovered.
It is not unusual for us to find pyramids in Egypt that are mere ruins, often because of a poor foundation. It seems that some pyramid architects took the foundation very seriously, while others did not. The Bent Pyramid, though largely intact, owes its preservation to the builder's realization of their errors soon enough to make changes to their initial building plans. The relatively soft layer of salty clay that the core rests upon seriously compromised the stability of the whole structure. The structure was further weakened by the internal masonry being laid with little care, leaving substantial gaps that were then filled with limestone rubble. However, one reason that so much of the fine white limestone casing remains is that they built an artificial foundation that it rests atop.
The Pyramid actually went through about three different alterations away from the original plans, which called for the structure to have an angle of almost 60°. It was changed to a less steep slope of almost 55°, requiring that the base be enlarged. This first alteration can be clearly seen in the ceiling and the side walls of the north access corridor, about twelve meters from the entrance. These early stages of construction used the traditional method of laying the courses of the core with the stones sloping inward. However, this adjustment in slope proved to be inadequate.
When the pyramid was about 45 meters high, the angle of the slope was reduced to 45° (later pyramid usually had a slope of between 52 and 53 degrees), which had the effect of reducing the mass of the upper part of the pyramid and thus reducing the load on the substructure. At this point in the pyramid's construction, the builders began laying the stone courses horizontally (rather than with the stones sloping inwards). Apparently the builders had learned that the inward sloping layers of the core, rather than adding stability, actually increased the stresses within the structure.
It should also be noted that other structural changes were incorporated into the Bent Pyramid. For example, both the core stones and the casing stones were larger than those used in 3rd Dynasty pyramids. In fact, the casing stones were much larger.
However, it should also be noted that a very few scholars believe that the pyramid was intentionally planned to have its odd shape for various religious reasons. This theory is dismissed by most Egyptologists.
The substructure of the Bent Pyramid, including the Burial Chamber There is actually two entrances to the substructure. A north entrance is aligned with the pyramid's north-south axis about twelve meters above ground level. The entrance leads to a descending corridor and then to an underground antechamber with a high, corbel vault ceiling made of large limestone slabs. A steep ladder (stairway) leads up into a burial chamber that also has a corbel vault ceiling. From here, a short passage leads out of the southwest corner to a vertical shaft, which today is partly destroyed. This shaft, referred to by archaeologists as the chimney, is precisely aligned with the vertical axis of the pyramid.
The second entrance to the pyramid is much higher up the west face of the structure. Again, it leads to a descending corridor, but here we find two portcullis barriers. The corridor ends in an "upper chamber", which also has a corbel vault ceiling made of rough limestone slabs. In the openings of side walls were found the remains of cedar beams (also to be found in his possible pyramid at Meidum). The lower part of the chamber was filled with rough limestone masonry, some of which was bound with mortar and some of which was laid dry.
Fakhry believes that Sneferu was actually buried in this chamber. Within the chamber, crudely written in red pigments is an inscription that bears the cartouche of Sneferu, but most Egyptologists believe the pyramid was never used for its intended purpose, and some also believe that it was the upper north chamber that was originally intended to be the burial chamber of Sneferu.
The chambers of the pyramid accessed by the northern entrance are lower than those accessed by the western entrance, but both substructures are connected by one narrow, irregular tunnel roughly cut through the core masonry of the pyramid. This passage communicates with the lower chamber and connected to the western substructure between the two barriers, but was almost certainly built after the completion of both substructures.
Egyptologists speculate that the underground substructure and the passage connecting the two systems, with the rooms all oriented north-south, was an effort by the builders to harmonize traditional theology with the emerging sun worship inspired east-west orientation of the pyramid complex as a whole. Others, though the arguments are somewhat similar, believe that the western substructure acted similarly to the South Tomb of Djoser.
DahshurDahshur forms the southernmost area of the Memphis Necropolis and contains a number of pyramid complexes and monuments. Dahshur has only recently been opened to the public, having been a military zone until 1996. As a result, the area is not as developed commercially as Giza, and there is a certain peace and tranquility to the site still. It is most noteworthy for being the site that best demonstrates the change from the "step" pyramid to the "true" pyramid that occurred during the Third and Fourth Dynasties.
The 3rd Dynasty Pharaoh Huni began construction on a true pyramid at Meidum, utilizing a step pyramid as a base for the construction. But it was his son, Sneferu (2613-2589 BC), first Pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, who would take monument-building to a new level. Sneferu began by completing the work on his father's pyramid, and then constructed a step pyramid of his own at Meidum. Yet once it was completed, Sneferu had a design for a new monument, utilizing what he had learned in his previous efforts. Snofru's second pyramid was to be a true pyramid from the beginning, unlike Huni's, which had been built around a step pyramid "core."
Unfortunately, Sneferu’s plans were curtailed. As construction neared the halfway point, the angle of the sides was reduced from the steep 54° to a gentler 43°. It is thought that this was done to alleviate stresses that had become evident in the lower part of the pyramid, either in the foundation blocks or the ground underneath. This resulted in a rhomboid or "bent" silhouette, and makes Sneferu’s pyramid the most distinct structure at Dahshur. It is also distinct for another reason: it still has much of its outer casing intact.
No doubt dissatisfied with a pyramid that appeared to "hesitate" on its rise to the heavens, Sneferu began construction on a second pyramid approximately two kilometers to the north. This is the famous "Red Pyramid" (named for the red limestone used in its construction), the oldest true pyramid in Egypt and the immediate predecessor of the pyramids that would come later. It has a slope angle of 43°, and is second in size only to the Great Pyramid at Giza, built by Sneferu’s son Khufu. In fact, the Great Pyramid is a mere 10 meters larger than the Red Pyramid. When completed, it must have been an incredible sight, for its name translates to "The Shining Pyramid."
Other major monuments at Dahshur date to the 12th and 13th Dynasties, but do not compare with the sheer scale of the works of Huni and Sneferu. The White Pyramid of Amenemhat II, the Black Pyramid of Amenemhat III, and the Pyramid of Senusret III dominate a number of smaller monuments to minor rulers, nobles, and officials, telling of a fairly stable and peaceful period in Egypt's history. Interestingly enough, the Black Pyramid and the Pyramid of Senusret III are made of brick, not stone. Why the materials were switched is unclear, though it is known that at that time new construction methods were coming to Egypt from other countries as trade and foreign relations became foremost.
What is also unclear is why Senusret III, Amenemhat II and Amenemhat III were buried at Dahshur, when the traditional royal burial site had been Giza since the time of Khufu. We do find evidence of a cult of Sneferu existing in the Middle Kingdom, and it may be that these pharaohs chose to have their pyramids built near to the tomb of the "father of pyramids" rather than at Giza.
Sadly, although brick was much easier to work with, not to mention cheaper compared to ton-weight granite blocks, it has not withstood the test of time. Though the Black Pyramid is reasonably intact, the White Pyramid is so damaged that we cannot even obtain a measure of the slope angle or its original height. The Black Pyramid contains a maze of rooms to foil tomb robbers, and it seems to have worked. Though robbers pilfered the burial chamber long ago, in 1993 a side room was found containing many precious funerary artifacts.
In addition to the pyramid complexes, Dahshur also contains a number of minor monuments. There are the companion temples to each pyramid and auxiliary tombs for members of the family and favored officials. There are also the mastabas of various princesses and queens, which contained many examples of Middle Kingdom jewelry, most of which are now in the Cairo Museum.
Imhotep MuseumIt was with great excitement that the new Imhotep Museum was opened in April 2006 by Dr. Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. A modern museum, both in technology and security, this is a place not to be missed on your next visit to Saqqara. Located twenty kilometers south of the Giza Pyramids, Saqqara is the site of the Step Pyramid and the funerary complex of King Zoser (Djoser), the Pyramid of Unas, the Teti Pyramid, Old Kingdom tombs with scenes of daily life, and much more. The sands of Saqqara have yielded treasures from the Archaic Period, the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, Late Period and Greco-Roman Period. And there is still much yet to be discovered! The excavations are continuing and each season more treasures are found.
In 1997 the building of the new museum began. The idea was to have a special place dedicated only to the many discoveries from this area. Located near the entrance, not far from where the ticket office was formerly located, visitors will be pleased to find artifacts that are attractively displayed, well air-conditioned buildings and modern toilet facilities.
The museum consists of five halls: 1) Theater and model of the funerary complex, 2) Main Hall including the architectural elements, 3) New Discoveries, 4) Model Tomb Hall, and 5) Library of Jean-Philippe Lauer.
In the theater visitors can watch a short film made by National Geographic about the Imhotep Museum. In the center of the room is a model of the funerary complex showing the Step Pyramid and surrounding buildings in brilliant white, the way they would have looked when they were new.
The most noticeable feature of the Main Hall is the blue-green faience. These tiles were collected in the anti-chamber and burial chamber of the Step Pyramid and reconstructed to show visitors how the walls of these chambers and those of the Southern Tomb would have looked in ancient times.
The most noticeable feature of the Main Hall is the blue-green faience. These tiles were collected in the anti-chamber and burial chamber of the Step Pyramid and reconstructed to show visitors how the walls of these chambers and those of the Southern Tomb would have looked in ancient times.
A statue of the Old Kingdom Scribe, Ptah-ShepsesThere is also a statue is of a scribe, Ptah-Shepses (5th Dynasty) from Abu Sir. There are two types of scribe statues – reading and writing. This statue of Ptah-Shepses is a reading scribe.
An impressive collection of large alabaster jars, some over one meter high, date back to the 2nd and 3rd Dynasties. These jars came from the chambers below the Step Pyramid. Included in the display is a block that shows the steps to making the alabaster jars.
One of the masterpieces now displayed in the "New Discoveries" hall of the museum is a mummy that was found during recent excavations around the Teti Pyramid. When we moved the sands we found a mummy that was the most beautiful mummy I have ever seen. When I saw the mummy Uniquely preserved mummy from the 30th Dynasty for the first time I was shocked. The colors looked like it was painted yesterday – yellow, blue, red and black. We know that it dates to the 30th Dynasty, but regrettably we do not know the name of the owner because there were no inscriptions to tell us. The mask is gilded. The mummy itself was wrapped in linen and is 176 cm in length. The casing is painted with scenes. On the chest there is painted a pectoral with a winged scarab. On each side there are five gods holding scepters. Some of the Bronze Statues discovered by Dr. Hawass Under the necklace there is a winged goddess, Ma'at, with two feathers. On the legs of the mummy are scenes of the god Anubis performing the mummifications?
Also in this hall are artifacts found during the excavations of Dr. Zahi Hawass near the Tomb of Qar. This newly discovered tomb was owned by a dentist from the Old Kingdom. There are surgical tools and bronze statues of the gods and goddesses, including Isis, Horus, Osiris, Ptah, Anubis and others. Dr. Zahi Hawass has A bust and limestone maces of Old Kingdom origin from Hall four of the museum made enormous contributions to Egyptology. Doing excavations, restoring monuments, opening new museums, publishing numerous books and articles, recovering stolen artifacts and increasing public awareness about Ancient Egypt and the new discoveries through the media, under his leadership the face of Ancient Egypt in today's world has reached heights never before achieved. Just as the Ancient Egyptians might say, "His name will live forever."
There are also some offering jars that still contained some cheese when they were found! Other pieces in this hall include a pyramidion that was found by Dr. Zahi Hawass near the Teti Pyramid, some limestone maces, a wooden coffin from King Mery-en-Ra of the 6th Dynasty, a limestone block with pyramid texts from the Pepi I Pyramid, some canopic jars of Alabaster, and a limestone sphinx of King Unas.
Khafre PyramidBecause its apex is in better condition and it is located on an elevation (of about 10 meters), Khafre's sometimes appears to be the largest of the three great Pyramids of the Giza Plateau. However, originally it was some three meters lower than its neighboring pyramid belonging to Khafre's father, Khufu. In fact, the walls of Khafre's pyramid are steeper than the Great Pyramid of Khufu (53o 10' as opposed to Khufu's 51o 40'), so it contains considerably less mass. Its name is "Khafre is great".
As one of the grandest pyramids in Egypt, his construct has been much studied, with a history of modern research not unlike that of Khufu's monument. In 1818, the strongman of Egyptology, Giovanni Belzoni, succeeded in penetrating into the pyramid's interior after a failed attempt by Giovanni Caviglia only a year earlier. Belzoni discovered the pyramid's "upper entrance" and managed to investigate its subterranean sections. However, the first extensive exploration of the monument was made in 1837 by Perring.
Mariette directed excavations of the pyramid's Valley Temple, which is also related to the Great Sphinx, in 1853. A year later, he was responsible for unearthing one of ancient Egypt's most famous and beautiful statues, that of Khafre on his throne with the protective outstretched winds of the falcon god, Horus, sheltering his head from behind. While Petrie also worked on this pyramid complex while at Giza, the first systematic modern excavations did not occur until the German Ernst von Sieglin expedition of 1909-1910 under the direction of Uvo Holscher. Later in the 1930s, Hassan unearthed the boat pits associated with the pyramid, and in recent times, Lehner and Hawass have investigated the pyramid complex under the auspices of the American Giza Plateau Mapping Project. Their work has mostly centered around modern geodetic measuring techniques, which has yielded considerable knowledge on both the pyramid, and the archaeology of architecture.
The Valley Temple:
The valley temple of Khafre's Giza complex, which is one of the best preserved Old Kingdom temples in Egypt. As a masterful work of ancient Egyptian monumental architecture, it was cleared of sand and in 1869 this temple, along with other monuments at Giza, became the backdrop for the ceremonial opening of the Suez Canal.
The valley temple of Khafre's Giza complex, which is one of the best preserved Old Kingdom temples in Egypt. As a masterful work of ancient Egyptian monumental architecture, it was cleared of sand and in 1869 this temple, along with other monuments at Giza, became the backdrop for the ceremonial opening of the Suez Canal.
The temple was fronted on the east by a large terrace paved with limestone slabs, through which two causeways led from the Nile canal. Just about in the middle of the terrace, fragments of what may have been a small, simple, wood and matting structure was unearthed that may have been the location of a statue depicting Khafre. However, others believe that this was a tent used for purification purposes, though known examples of such a structure are only found in a few private tombs.
In 1995, Zahi Hawass re-cleared the area in front of the Valley temple and in doing so, discovered that the causeways passed over tunnels that were framed with mudbrick walls and paved with limestone. These tunnels have a slightly convex profile resembling that of a boat. They formed a narrow corridor or canal running north-south. In front of the Sphinx Temple, the canal runs into a drain leading northeast, probably to a quay buried below the modern tourist plaza.
The causeways connected the Nile canal with two separate entrances on the Valley temple facade that were sealed by huge, single-leaf doors probably made of cedar wood and hung on copper hinges. A recumbent Sphinx protected each of these doorways. The northern most of these portals was dedicated to the goddess Bastet, while the southern portal was dedicated to Hathor.
The temple was laid out in almost a square ground plan. It is situated just next to the Great Sphinx and its associated temple. Not surprisingly, since the valley temple was a gateway or portal to the whole complex, it is very similar to the fore part of Khafre's mortuary temple. Its core wall was built of huge blocks that sometimes weighed as much as one hundred and fifty tons. This inner core was then covered by pink granite slabs, a material used extensively throughout the complex that was quarried near Aswan far to the south. This wall was slightly inclined and rounded at the top, making the whole structure appear somewhat like a mastaba tomb.
Between the two entrances to the valley temple was a vestibule with walls of simple pink granite that were originally polished to a luster. Its floors were paved with white alabaster. A door then led to a T-shaped hall that made up a majority of the temple. This area too was sheathed with polished pink granite and paved with white alabaster, though it was also adorned with sixteen single block pink granite pillars, many of which are still in place today, which supported architrave blocks of the same material, bound together with copper bands in the form of a swallow's tail. These in turn supported the roof.
Here, in the dim light provided by slits at the tops of the walls, stood as many as twenty four statues of the king (though one statue base in the middle that is larger than the others may have been counted twice) made from diorite, slate and alabaster. This line of statues continues along the cross of the T shaped hall ending at a doorway that leads to a corridor from which a stairway ramp winds clockwise up and over the top of the corridor before terminating on the roof of the valley temple.
On the south side of the roof was a small courtyard, situated directly over six storage chambers also built of pink granite and arranged in two stories of three units each. These were embedded in the core masonry of the T shaped hall. Symbolic conduits lined in alabaster, a material specifically identified with purification, run from the temple's roof courtyard down into the deep, dark chambers below. These symbolic circuits run through the entire temple, taking in both the chthonic and the solar aspects of the afterlife beliefs and of the embalming ritual for which the valley temple was the stage, according to some Egyptologists.
The Causeway:
A corridor cut from the rock separated the ruined causeway from the Great Sphinx temple and the valley temple. The causeway stretches some forty-six meters connecting these structures with the mortuary temple just before the main pyramid. It did not run exactly along the east-west axis of the pyramid and mortuary temple, but instead somewhat to the southeast of it due to the fact that the valley temple was erected slightly out of line with the Great Sphinx and the mortuary temple. Archaeologists believe that causeway was probably a covered corridor built of limestone and lined on its exterior by pink granite blocks. Within it may have been decorated with reliefs.
A corridor cut from the rock separated the ruined causeway from the Great Sphinx temple and the valley temple. The causeway stretches some forty-six meters connecting these structures with the mortuary temple just before the main pyramid. It did not run exactly along the east-west axis of the pyramid and mortuary temple, but instead somewhat to the southeast of it due to the fact that the valley temple was erected slightly out of line with the Great Sphinx and the mortuary temple. Archaeologists believe that causeway was probably a covered corridor built of limestone and lined on its exterior by pink granite blocks. Within it may have been decorated with reliefs.
The Mortuary Temple:
The causeway enters the mortuary temple near the south end of its front facade.
The mortuary temple, unlike later pyramid complexes, did not border directly against the pyramid but was rather separated from its east wall by the pyramid courtyard. Rectangular in its ground plan, it is oriented east-west and has walls built of local limestone that are cased in finer limestone, a technique introduced in this structure. Inside, the building was almost completely lined with granite. The mortuary temple has, in its elemental design, the basics for the mature mortuary temples ultimately perfected by Sahure at Abusir, including an entrance hall, an open courtyard, five statue chapels, various storehouses and an offering hall. This structure marks a real architectural advance, being both larger than previous examples and for the first time, including all five elements that were to become standard.
The Pyramid Proper:
Khafre’s pyramid is surrounded by an inner, huge stone perimeter wall, within which an open courtyard is barely ten meters wide that bounds the four sides of the pyramid proper. This courtyard is paved with limestone slabs of irregular form.
Because of the two different entrances to this structure, some Egyptologists believe that the main Pyramid of Khafre was originally meant to be larger and to stand slightly farther north than its completed position. However, modern scholars with considerable expertise on this pyramid, such as Lehner, doubt this assumption. Like the pyramid of Khufu and others in Egypt, Khafre's structure takes advantage of a rock outcropping to both increases the stability of its core, as well as to conserve the amount of necessary building materials needed for its construction. In fact, the lowest levels of its southwest corner are actually hacked out of the rock subsoil. The bedrock surface to the northwest had to be cut down some 10 meters by its ancient builders, while the southeast corner had to be built up using mammoth blocks of masonry. However, by far the substance of the pyramid core is made up of locally quarried limestone blocks of approximately equal height. Nearby to the north of the pyramid, one may still clearly see the traces of how these blocks were quarried. The blocks were not laid with the care that was given to the core of Khufu's pyramid, for the layers do not always run exactly horizontally, and the joints are at times very wide. Often, there is no mortar between the blocks. In fact, because the four corner angles were not quite aligned correctly to meet the pyramid apex, there is a very slight twist at the top.
The base levels of the casing were made of pink granite, while the higher layers, which become much smaller towards the top (about one cubit thick), are of fine Turah limestone. The outside faces of the casing blocks are often staggered by a few millimeters rather than flush, which may mean that they were faced prior to their placement. While the pyramidion and the apex have been lost, at the top of the pyramid, a small portion of the original casing remains in place, which helps us see how the finishing blocks were laid and bound to the pyramid core. However, because it is clear that the remaining casing is eroding; recent investigations by Italian experts have shown that the remaining corner edges of the mantle are not completely straight. Individual blocks are slightly turned in various directions. An analysis of this peculiarity suggests that this was the result of seismic activity. Small earthquakes were not uncommon in ancient Egypt, as they are likewise known to occur in modern times.
The oldest of the two entrances into the subterranean depths of Khafre's pyramid is now located in the ground about thirty meters north of the pyramid. Carved completely out of the rock subsoil, it is sometimes called the "lower entrance". This portal communicates with a corridor that at first descends before running horizontally. In this horizontal leg of the corridor, a passage gives way on the west wall to a small chamber cut from the bedrock and provided with a roof, where part of the burial equipment was possibly stored. After the horizontal section of the entrance corridor, it finally ascends into a horizontal corridor shared by the "upper entrance".
The second portal, known as the "upper entrance", is located in the north wall of the pyramid's face about twelve meters above ground level. It communicates with a corridor lined in pink granite that first descends before running horizontally at the base of the pyramid. At the transitional point between its descending and horizontal sections, there is a barrier made of pink granite, which in antiquity, grave robbers managed to dig around. The horizontal passage continues south after the barrier, eventually arriving at the burial chamber, which lies on the vertical axis of the pyramid. Given the location and relatively simple construction of the access corridor and the burial chamber, it is likely that the architects of this pyramid sought to avoid the complications that builders of Khufu's pyramid had encountered with their technically difficult system of passageways, barriers and chambers.
As with earlier pyramids, the burial chamber has a rectangular, east-west oriented ground plan which places it at a right angle to the passage system. With the exception of its ceiling, it was excavated completely out of the rock. Located over the pyramid's base, the burial chamber's gabled ceiling is built from enormous pentad, limestone blocks. Originally, the intention may have been to cover the burial chamber's walls of this chamber in pink granite. There are shaft entrances in both the north and south walls of the burial chamber that, at first, appear similar to those in the Queen's and King's cambers of the great Pyramid, but are rather The Sarcophagus short, horizontal openings that could have been used to reinforce a wooden structure inside the tomb.
Near the west wall of the burial chamber, almost directly under the vertical axis of the pyramid and situated within a niche stands the black granite sarcophagus of the king that originally was surmounted by a sliding lid. The lid was found in two pieces close by. Near the sarcophagus, a small shaft in the floor probably held royal canopic vessel, which would have been the first instance of this funerary equipment placed in a pyramid.. No positively identifiable remains of the king's mummy or his other funerary equipment were found within the pyramid.
Technical:
Main Pyramid:
Original name: Khafre is great
Date of construction: 4th dynasty
Original height: 1473.5 meters
Angle of inclination: 53o 10'
Lengths of sides of base: 215.25 meters
Length of Causeway: 494.6 Meters
Original name: Khafre is great
Date of construction: 4th dynasty
Original height: 1473.5 meters
Angle of inclination: 53o 10'
Lengths of sides of base: 215.25 meters
Length of Causeway: 494.6 Meters
Cult Pyramid
Angle of inclination: 53o 54'
Angle of inclination: 53o 54'
Khufu’s Pyramid (The Great Pyramid)For many years, the Sound and Light Show at Giza opened with, "You have come tonight to the most fabulous and celebrated place in the world”. Here on the Plateau of Giza stands forever the mightiest of human achievements. No traveler, emperor, merchant or poet has trodden on these sands and not gasped in awe".
Though there are many outstanding ancient monuments in Egypt that survive to this day, one in particular is best known and the most closely associated by the general public with ancient Egypt. It is, of course, the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), the largest in Egypt, located on the Giza Plateau just outside Cairo. Its name was "Khufu's Horizon" In fact, even if people have very little knowledge of Egypt, they will frequently not only know of this monument, but will also have any number of opinions about how and when it was built, as well as its function. Arguably, it is the best known manmade structure in the world, and for good reason.
Of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Khufu's Pyramid is the first and only survivor. It is indeed impressive, originally standing some 146.59 (481 feet) high and covering about thirteen acres of land, though in the last hundred or so years, modern marvels (the Empire State Building, built in 1930, is over three times as tall though situated on only two acres of land) probably make it seem less impressive to visitors than to those who, for thousands of years, came to visit the pyramid prior to our modern era. In reality, modern scholars for the most part probably find this pyramid less interesting than many other ancient structures in Egypt, mostly because it is not decorated with reliefs and inscriptions (though parts of its subsidiary structures were), and is otherwise, except for some parts of its An very early photograph of the Great Pyramid and Sphinx by Francis Firth internal structure, a fairly typical pyramid complex. Other pyramids are almost as large, and many pyramids are really more enigmatic. Khufu's pyramid was not the first, nor was it even the first true pyramid. Other pharaohs, such as Sneferu, Khufu's father, had moved probably as much stone, building three different pyramids himself.
Yet, Khufu's pyramid was, in a line of astonishing architectural leaps forward, a significant link in Pyramid building's evolution. In terms of its size, the technical accomplishments of its construction, the great concern for cardinality and the organization required for its construction, this pyramid represents a phenomenal effort. Like later pyramids, it encompasses all of the standard elements of the pyramid complex, though most have since disappeared. The finished pyramid, which included a superstructure and substructure, was surrounded by an enclosure wall of fine Turah limestone, which enclosed a court paved in limestone. There was a valley temple, a causeway from it leading to a mortuary Temple that was itself situated against the pyramid. There was also a cult pyramid, as well as three pyramids for the burial of queens, a number of boat pit and other structures.
Though we really do not know with absolute certainty, the pyramid complex of Khufu probably remained mostly intact for almost 4,000 years. During that period of time, most visitors to it must have been amazed by its enormity, and probably by the ancient Egyptian's reverence toward the structure.
In the end, the deterioration of this pyramid, like its conception, can be attributed at least partially to religion. It was created to bury the king in a complex that would conform to the Pyramids of Giza with the city at its feet ancient Egyptian religion. It probably survived in relatively good shape until that religion was replaced by another, and then another. By the time the Arabs invaded Egypt during the seventh century, there was little or no religious reverence afforded the structure, so casing stones and other building material from the complex were reused for new building projects in the area of Cairo. This process was not exclusive to Khufu's pyramid and in fact, the reuse of material from older structures was not even uncommon during the age of the pharaohs. However, even this did not happen to the Great Pyramids until, in the middle Ages, a series of earthquakes loosened the casing stones and allowed them to be harvested for other projects.
Most people with a limited knowledge of Egypt believe that the Great Pyramids of Giza lie out in the desert, and are therefore rather surprised when, traveling down Pyramid road to the east, The Pyramids of Giza seen from the city they see them rise up, seemingly among the distant buildings. They in fact sit on the city limits of Greater Cairo, and are threatened by man's expansion, though scholars are very aware of this today, and work to prevent damage to the structure.
For awhile, mankind treated the Great Pyramid with more curiosity than reverence. It was tunneled through, climbed, and generally abused, right up to our modern era. In her book, The Mena House Oberoi, Nina Nelson tells us that,
"Climbing Cheops' Great Pyramid continues all and every day. ... It is a laborious task yet everyone who does it enjoys it. The blocks of stone measure from two to five feet high and certainly one should have a guide to help pull one along the difficult places."At one time, various people even attempted to set records for scaling the monument
During World War II, there were even gun emplacements built on its apex. The Egyptological community and particularly Zahi Hawass can be credited for bringing that to a halt. No longer are people allowed to climb it (unless very special permission is granted), and its investigation today is always non-intrusive. Planes are not allowed to fly above it and in general, it receives the national protection it deserves.
Nevertheless, it has been and continues to be a place of considerable activity. Races were often held at the pyramids, and in recent years, it has served as a backdrop for artistic displays and musical performances. With Zahi Hawass as Chairman of the SCA, it is doubtful that we will see The Pyramids of Giza have and continue to be wrapped in mystery for many people many more performances by artists such as Sting and the Grateful Dead, but it remains the primary venue for Verdi's Aida opera.
Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of Khufu's pyramid complex is the amazing amount of investigation it has received, and the astonishing degree of controversy that it has inspired. The research of the complex continues even today, and new discoveries, sometimes major ones, have been made even in recent years. For example, only very recently, the estimated number of blocks used to build the pyramid itself has been cut almost in half.
The history of man's thoughts about this structure is by far more complex, and often more interesting than the pyramid itself. Even in recent years, speculation that the pyramid was constructed by aliens or perhaps Atlantians continues. Countless books have been written about this Pyramid, many scholarly, but others not.
The history of man's thoughts about this structure is by far more complex, and often more interesting than the pyramid itself. Even in recent years, speculation that the pyramid was constructed by aliens or perhaps Atlantians continues. Countless books have been written about this Pyramid, many scholarly, but others not.
Take, for example, the matter of the metric system. Used by most countries as the official standard of measure, and by the scientific community worldwide, there has been reluctance on the part of Americans and the British to incorporate the system. Much of this may be reluctance on the part of their respective populations to change from the system familiar to them. Another View of the Great Pyramid just outside Greater Cairo However, the Great Pyramid of Khufu certainly played a part in all of this.
When one visits the Pyramid of Khufu, one is actually walking in the footsteps of the famous, both of the modern and ancient world. Alexandria the Great stood before it, just as modern visitors, and swore to build for his father, the Macedonian king Philip II, a funerary monument as large as the Great Pyramid, though death took him before he was able to do so. Herodotus, Strabo and Pliny certainly all made visits to the pyramid. Doubtless, every famous traveler in antiquity must have visited Khufu's complex. Many later individuals came to see this wonder of the ancient world, and they continue to come today. For years, it was popular for them to climb the pyramid, though this is no longer allowed, but atop it one can see the names etched in stone of those who did.
Though most of the early visitors to the Great Pyramid were non-intrusive, by the time of the Arab Invasion of Egypt, the ancient Egyptian religion was gone and so too was apparently the Egyptian's understanding of the monument. Fables arose of fabulous treasures and immense knowledge contained within the structure, long before Taylor and Smyth's work. Finally, Caliph al-Ma’mun (831-832 AD) is believed to have acted upon this information. Though the pyramid or at least the substructure had been breached by unknown robbers during antiquity, al-Ma’mun was apparently the first known individual to do so. After having at least looked for the original entrance, but unable to find it, al-Ma’mun instructed his men to tunnel into the pyramid from a point at the center of its north face, seven courses up. Apparently, the pyramid still held at least some of its casing stones, for they had to light fires to heat the blocks before cooling them rapidly with vinegar to induce fractures. Once past the outer core, they dug for about 100 feet, finding nothing in the process. However, one of the workmen heard a muffled thud of something heavy falling within the pyramid, not too far away, and they altered course and eventually broke through into what is now known as the "Descending Passage". While al-Mammon’s men explored a considerable part of the pyramid's interior structure, they apparently found nothing except an empty coffin, though rumors, legends and fables, also grew from their exploration.
Even though al-Ma’mun apparently found no riches or hidden knowledge within the Great Pyramid, it continued to retain its mysterious, hidden meaning for most travelers. All of the European scientific travelers and pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land seem to have visited it. They are too numerous to mention here. However, the first attempt at an Egyptological study, it seems, was conducted by John Greaves, and English scholar from whom Tomkins would later draw some of more fanciful ideas. He climbed to the top, measured the pyramid's blocks and also made his way inside the pyramid. His sectional drawing of the structure is remarkably accurate for its time.
However, only at the turn of the nineteenth century did true archaeological work begin using scientific methods.
Finally, Zahi Hawass, a longtime investigator at Giza and now the Chairman of the SCA (Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities), focused on the grounds of the presumed valley temple, the causeway and the mortuary temple. It was he who, not so long ago, discovered the cult pyramid as well as its pyramidion. Though he has now moved on to head Egypt's antiquity community, work nevertheless continues.
Finally, Zahi Hawass, a longtime investigator at Giza and now the Chairman of the SCA (Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities), focused on the grounds of the presumed valley temple, the causeway and the mortuary temple. It was he who, not so long ago, discovered the cult pyramid as well as its pyramidion. Though he has now moved on to head Egypt's antiquity community, work nevertheless continues.
Today, the Pyramid of Khufu, though lacking its original luster, remains perhaps the most visited site in Egypt. It is said that "Man fears Time, yet Time fears the Pyramids" Hence, the Pyramid of Khufu, though not the oldest in Egypt, nevertheless has become a symbol of long lasting durability, and it is probably for this reason more than any other, that one can still find it pictured on the reverse of the US Dollar Bill.
Technical:
Technical:
The Pyramid:
* Height: 146.5m
* Base: 230.38m
* Slope: 51o 50'
* Base: 230.38m
* Slope: 51o 50'
Great Gallery:
* Height: 8.48 to 8.74m
* Length 47.85m
* Slope: 26o 16' 40"
* Length 47.85m
* Slope: 26o 16' 40"
Queens Chamber:
* Height 6.26m
* Length 5.76m
* Width 5.23m
* Length 5.76m
* Width 5.23m
King's Chamber:
* Height: 5.84m
* Length: 10.49m
* Width: 5.42m
* Length: 10.49m
* Width: 5.42m
Causeway:
* Length: 825m
Boat Pits (On Northeast and Southeast Corners of Pyramid:
* Depth: 8m
* Length 52m
* Width: 7.5m
* Length 52m
* Width: 7.5m
Khufu’s Boat (The Solar Boat)It should be pointed out that there are actually seven boat pits in the whole complex of Khufu at Giza, but two of the boat pits are associated with the smaller so-called Queen's Pyramids.
The two southern boat pits were discovered in 1954, during cleaning work, by the young Egyptian architect and archeologist Kamal el-Mallakh and inspector Zaki Nur. The eastern pit was covered by a roof of forty-one huge limestone slabs weighing between 17 and 20 tons each. The largest is about 4.8 meters long. The three westernmost of these stones were much smaller than the others and have been interpreted as keystones. The pit measures about 32.5 meters in length. When one of the slabs was raised from the eastern pit, the planking of the great boat was seen, completely the assembly work on Khufu's boat dismantled, but arranged in the semblance of its finished form.
The cedar boat now on display was originally dismantled into 1,224 individual parts. On top of the wood was a layer of mats and ropes, an instrument made of flint, and some small pieces of white plaster. The prow of the boat, a wooden column topped by a round wooden disk, was found at the western end of the pit. This column was connected to two long wooden pieces that extended along the bottom of the pit. Most of the wooden parts had been tied together with ropes. Also found inside the pit were many other items, such as twelve oars, each mad from a single piece of wood, fifty-eight poles, three cylindrical columns and five doors. In total, there were thirteen layers of materials consisting of 651 artifacts ranging in size from 10 centimeters to 23 meters.
The boat was removed, piece by piece, under the supervision of Ahmed Youssef Mustafa, the master restorer who worked on Hetephere's funerary furniture. It is 43.3 meters (142 feet) long and made of Lebanese cedar wood and some acacia. Its displacement was 45 tons. The maximum draft is 1.48 meters (5 feet). It is 5.9 meters wide. The separate parts of the boat had numerous U-shaped holes so that the boat could be 'stitched' together using ropes made of vegetable fibers. Interestingly many of the boats planks were marked with signs for prow, stern, port and starboard. Nevertheless it took Mustafa some ten years to completely reassemble the boat. That work was not completed until 1968.
The boat's prow and stern are in the form of papyrus talks, with the stern one bent over. Therefore, it is essentially a replica of a type of papyrus reed boat, perhaps dating back to the Blocks covering the boat pit from which the restored boat was removed at Giza Predynastic Period. During the Old Kingdom, it is not difficult to find many objects simulating the Egyptian's earlier construction material in more durable material. It has a cabin, or inner shrine, which is enclosed within a reed-mat structure with poles of the same papyrus-but form that we see in the canopy of Hetepheres. It also has a small forward cabin that probably was for the captain. Propulsion was by means of ten oars, and it was steered using two large oar rudders located in the stern. There was no mast, and therefore no sail, and the general design of the boat would have not allowed it to be used other than for river travel.
On the walls of the pit in which the boat now displayed in a special museum was found, there were many builders' marks and inscriptions, including some eighteen cartouches containing the name of King Djedefra. This suggests to many Egyptologists that some parts of his tomb complex were not completed until after his death. One scholar, Dobrev, has theorized that the two boat pits on the south side of the Great Pyramid were built by Djedefra as a gesture of piety connected with the establishment of the local divine cult of his father and founder of the royal necropolis in Giza. However, if the boats were used in the funeral of Khufu, it would be natural for Djedefra to have buried them with his cartouches.
It took a number of years to reassemble the boat, like a giant jigsaw puzzle, so that it could be displayed in its own boat museum next to the pyramid.
In the neighboring pit on the west, the boat remains sealed up with the original twenty covering blocks. In 1987, the American National Geographic Society, in association with the Egyptian office for historical monuments, examined this pit by boring a hole into the limestone beams covering it and inserting a micro camera and measuring equipment. The space was photographed and air measurements made, after which the pit was sealed again. It was hoped that the pit had been so well sealed hat the air inside would have last been breathed by the ancient Egyptians, but there were obvious signs that this was not the case. Within, the parts of the disassembled boat were again arranged in their correct relative positions, though the pit was shorter than the fully assembled boat would have been.
So even with the boats of Khufu, many mysteries which may, or may never be answered remain. In this regard, the remaining unexcavated boat is of interest, and may someday lead us to a few of the answers we seek.
MeidumFunerary site of an unusual early pyramid complex and associated private cemetery, situated close to the Fayum region. The pyramid is usually ascribed to Huni (2637-2613), last king of the 3rd Dynasty, although his name does not appear anywhere on the monument and it is perhaps more likely that his funerary monument would have been located at SAQQARA (possibly in an unexcavated enclosure to the west of the step pyramids of DJOSER and SEKHEMKHET). The Meidum pyramid may have belonged to his son SNEFERU, whose name is mentioned in graffiti dating to the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) in the passage and chamber of a small mortuary temple at the site. Alternatively it may have been completed by Sneferu but begun by Huni, since Sneferu himself appears to have had two pyramid complexes at DAHSHUR.
The modern appearance of the Meidum pyramid is that of a stepped tower, but it was originally constructed as a seven-stepped pyramid, amended to eight steps, and finally provided with a smooth outer casing to transform it into the earliest true pyramid (although Sneferu's 'north' pyramid at Dahshur may have been the earliest to have been designed as such from the outset). It was once suggested that the outer casing of the Meidum pyramid collapsed early in the 4th Dynasty, and thus inspired the change of angle in the final stages of Sneferu's 'bent' pyramid at Dahshur, assuming that both were being built simultaneously. However, the presence of a well-established cemetery of early 4th-Dynasty MASTABA tombs surrounding the pyramid, as well as the New Kingdom graffiti in the mortuary temple, all make it more likely that the collapse came much later, and certainly no earlier than the New Kingdom.
The corbelled burial chamber was built into the superstructure of the pyramid at the level of the old ground surface, and, in its architectural sophistication, it is regarded as second only to the 'grand gallery' in the Great Pyramid of Khufu (2589-2566 BC) at GIZA. The building interpreted as a mortuary temple on the east side of the pyramid was found to incorporate two enormous uninscribed round-topped stone stelae probably forming part of an offering chapel. An open causeway led to the valley temple, which has not yet been excavated.
The mastaba cemeteries, located north and east of the pyramid have provided some of the best examples of early 4th-Dynasty paintings, reliefs and statuary. The internal walls of the superstructure of the tomb of Nefermaat and his wife Atet were decorated with painted scenes of daily life, including the celebrated depiction of the 'Meidum Geese’ The same tomb also includes an innovative, but apparently short-lived, form of wall decoration using coloured paste inlays. The painted limestone statues of Rahotep and Nofret (Egyptian Museum, Cairo), probably a son and daughter-in-law of Sneferu, were discovered by Auguste Mariette in 1871 in a mastaba to the north of the pyramid. The earliest surviving mummy, dating to the 5th Dynasty, was excavated by Flinders Petrie at Meidum in 1891, but it was later destroyed when the Royal College of Surgeons was bombed during the Second World War.
The corbelled burial chamber was built into the superstructure of the pyramid at the level of the old ground surface, and, in its architectural sophistication, it is regarded as second only to the 'grand gallery' in the Great Pyramid of Khufu (2589-2566 BC) at GIZA. The building interpreted as a mortuary temple on the east side of the pyramid was found to incorporate two enormous uninscribed round-topped stone stelae probably forming part of an offering chapel. An open causeway led to the valley temple, which has not yet been excavated.
The mastaba cemeteries, located north and east of the pyramid have provided some of the best examples of early 4th-Dynasty paintings, reliefs and statuary. The internal walls of the superstructure of the tomb of Nefermaat and his wife Atet were decorated with painted scenes of daily life, including the celebrated depiction of the 'Meidum Geese’ The same tomb also includes an innovative, but apparently short-lived, form of wall decoration using coloured paste inlays. The painted limestone statues of Rahotep and Nofret (Egyptian Museum, Cairo), probably a son and daughter-in-law of Sneferu, were discovered by Auguste Mariette in 1871 in a mastaba to the north of the pyramid. The earliest surviving mummy, dating to the 5th Dynasty, was excavated by Flinders Petrie at Meidum in 1891, but it was later destroyed when the Royal College of Surgeons was bombed during the Second World War.
Memphis:The Name we use today derives from the Pyramid of Pepy I at Saqqara, which is Mennufer (the good place), or Coptic Menfe. Memphis is the Greek translation. But the City was originally Ineb-Hedj, meaning "The White Wall". Some sources indicate that other versions of the name may have even translated to our modern name for the country, Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom, it was Ankh-Tawy, or "That Which Binds the Two Lands". In fact, its location lies approximately between Upper and Lower Egypt, and the importance of the area is demonstrated by its persistent tendency to be the Capital of Egypt, as Cairo just to the North is today.
Memphis, founded around 3,100 BC, is the legendary city of Menes, the King who united Upper and Lower Egypt. Early on, Memphis was more likely a fortress from which Menes controlled the land and water routes between Upper Egypt and the Delta. Having probably originated in Upper Egypt, from Memphis he could control the conquered people of Lower Egypt. However, by the Third Dynasty, the building at Saqqara suggests that Memphis had become a sizable city.
Tradition tells us that Menes founded the city by creating dikes to protect the area from Nile floods. Afterwards, this great city of the Old Kingdom became the administrative and religious center of Egypt. In fact, so dominating is the city during this era that we refer to it as the Memphite period. It became a cosmopolitan community and was probably one of the largest and most important cities in the ancient world. When Herodotus visited the city in the 5th century BC, a period when Persians ruled Egypt, he found many Greeks, Jews, Phoenicians and Libyans among the population
Frankly, our concept of Memphis today is very artificial. The city must have been huge, judging from the size of its necropolises which extend for some 19 miles along the west bank of the Nile. These include Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Zawyet el-Aryan, Giza and Abu Rawash, whose names derive not from their origins, but from modern nearby communities. Very few people can imagine the age of this city, as no European cities have yet to attain the span of Memphis' existence, and it is completely outside the comprehension of people in the Americas. Rome may eventually outlast Memphis, but as with any city that remains active for thousands of years, the city center, and various areas of the city shifted over the years, so today, what we think of as Memphis is rather artificial. Some scholars believe that the city may have shifted first north, and then back south though its three millennium history.
But there is little left of the City today at least that can be seen. Originally, the city had many fine temples, palaces and gardens. But today, other than the scattered ruins, most of the city is gone, or lies beneath cultivated fields, Nile silt and local villages. What we do know of Memphis comes to us from its necropolises, mentioned above, text and papyrus from other parts of Egypt and Herodotus, who visited the city.
Frankly, our concept of Memphis today is very artificial. The city must have been huge, judging from the size of its necropolises which extend for some 19 miles along the west bank of the Nile. These include Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Zawyet el-Aryan, Giza and Abu Rawash, whose names derive not from their origins, but from modern nearby communities. Very few people can imagine the age of this city, as no European cities have yet to attain the span of Memphis' existence, and it is completely outside the comprehension of people in the Americas. Rome may eventually outlast Memphis, but as with any city that remains active for thousands of years, the city center, and various areas of the city shifted over the years, so today, what we think of as Memphis is rather artificial. Some scholars believe that the city may have shifted first north, and then back south though its three millennium history.
But there is little left of the City today at least that can be seen. Originally, the city had many fine temples, palaces and gardens. But today, other than the scattered ruins, most of the city is gone, or lies beneath cultivated fields, Nile silt and local villages. What we do know of Memphis comes to us from its necropolises, mentioned above, text and papyrus from other parts of Egypt and Herodotus, who visited the city.
For example, we have a number of papyruses from the time of the mysterious Akhenaten concerning Memphis on such mundane matters as bread baking. And we know that the royal decree rejecting the Cult of Akhenaten issued by Tutankhamun after the earlier king's death originated in Memphis, indicating the cities importance, even over Thebes, in the New Kingdom.
What happened to the city to cause its complete demise is somewhat unclear. In later Dynasties Thebes became the capital of Egypt, but we know that Memphis retained much of its religious significance and continued to prosper during this period. Actually, Thebes was never exactly the administrative center of Egypt which Memphis was, its significance being more religious. In fact, by the 18th Dynasty, the Egyptian Kings had apparently moved back into the Palaces of Memphis. But when the Greeks arrived, and moved the Egyptian capital to Alexandria, Memphis suffered, and with the entrance of Christianity and the decline of Egyptian religion, Memphis became a mere shadow of the former great city. But the actual demise of Memphis probably occurred with the invasion of the Muslim conquerors in 641 when they established their new capital not at Memphis, but a short distance north of the city at Fustat, which is now a part of Cairo called Old Cairo, or Coptic Cairo.
Still, in the 12th Century AD, one traveler wrote, "the ruins still offer, to those who contemplate them, a collection of such marvelous beauty that the intelligence is confounded, and the most eloquent man would be unable to describe them adequately". But during the Mamluk period of Egypt, the dikes which held back the Nile floods fell into disrepair, after which Memphis was apparently and slowly covered in silt.
The fraction we can see of Memphis today is located principally around the small village of Mit Rahina. We believe that Ptah was the principle pagan god worshipped in Memphis, who was identified with Hephaistos and Vulcan. The remains of the god's temple bordering the village of Mit Rahina was at one time probably one of the grandest temples in Egypt. Today, only a fraction of the temple remains, which was originally excavated by the famous Egyptologist, W.M. Flinders Petrie between 1908and 1913. Ramses II is well represented here, with a colossus of himself near the Alabaster Sphinx along the southern enclosure wall.
The Colossus of Ramesses:
Is an enormous statue carved in limestone It is about 10m (33.8 ft) long, even though it has no feet, and is located near the village of Mit Rahina. A small museum has been built to house this magnificent piece. The fallen colossus was found near the south gate of the temple of Ptah, located about 30m from the huge limestone statue of Ramesses. Some of the original colors are still partly preserved.
The colossus is an incredible piece of work. Ramesses is portrayed in the prone position, but the piece is unfinished
The Alabaster Sphinx:-
Stands near the remains of Memphis. It was carved in honor of an unknown Pharaoh most likely during the eighteenth dynasty, between 1700 and 1400 BC. Although there was not an inscription, the facial features suggest that it was in honor of Hatshepsut or Amenhotep II or Amenhotep III. Amenhotep III is thought to be the builder of the Luxor Temple.
The Alabaster Sphinx is 8m (26 ft) long and 4m (13 ft) tall and weighs around 90 tons. It has corroded over the centuries, but remains very impressive. This monument may have stood outside of the Temple of Ptah along with the Colossus of Ramses II. The Alabaster Sphinx spent many years lying on its side in water. This was responsible for the damage to the surface of the monument.
Other remains include an enclosure with a ruined palace of Apries to the north of the Temple of Ptah.
The fraction we can see of Memphis today is located principally around the small village of Mit Rahina. We believe that Ptah was the principle pagan god worshipped in Memphis, who was identified with Hephaistos and Vulcan. The remains of the god's temple bordering the village of Mit Rahina was at one time probably one of the grandest temples in Egypt. Today, only a fraction of the temple remains, which was originally excavated by the famous Egyptologist, W.M. Flinders Petrie between 1908and 1913. Ramses II is well represented here, with a colossus of himself near the Alabaster Sphinx along the southern enclosure wall.
The Colossus of Ramesses:
Is an enormous statue carved in limestone It is about 10m (33.8 ft) long, even though it has no feet, and is located near the village of Mit Rahina. A small museum has been built to house this magnificent piece. The fallen colossus was found near the south gate of the temple of Ptah, located about 30m from the huge limestone statue of Ramesses. Some of the original colors are still partly preserved.
The colossus is an incredible piece of work. Ramesses is portrayed in the prone position, but the piece is unfinished
The Alabaster Sphinx:-
Stands near the remains of Memphis. It was carved in honor of an unknown Pharaoh most likely during the eighteenth dynasty, between 1700 and 1400 BC. Although there was not an inscription, the facial features suggest that it was in honor of Hatshepsut or Amenhotep II or Amenhotep III. Amenhotep III is thought to be the builder of the Luxor Temple.
The Alabaster Sphinx is 8m (26 ft) long and 4m (13 ft) tall and weighs around 90 tons. It has corroded over the centuries, but remains very impressive. This monument may have stood outside of the Temple of Ptah along with the Colossus of Ramses II. The Alabaster Sphinx spent many years lying on its side in water. This was responsible for the damage to the surface of the monument.
Other remains include an enclosure with a ruined palace of Apries to the north of the Temple of Ptah.
Menkaure PyramidMenkaure apparently intended for his pyramid on Giza Plateau to be the last of that specific area of the Memphite necropolises, which it is, as well as being the smallest. The valley temple lies at the mouth of the main wadi, closing what had been the principal conduit for construction materials brought to Giza for three generations. Named "Menkaure is Divine", the pyramid was thought by some Greeks, according to Herodotus, to belong to the Greek hertaera Rhodopis. Manetho thought that it belonged to Psamtik I's beautiful daughter, Nitokris.
Menkaure's pyramid, with its original height of some 65-66 meters, represents only about 1/10th of the mass we find in Khufu's pyramid. However, this may be the result of a theology which dictated more emphasis on the temples and less on the pyramid, a process evident to us already in the reign of Khafre which continued throughout the Old Kingdom.
The Pyramid Proper:
Menkaure's pyramid lies at the far end of the Giza diagonal on the very edge of the Moqattam Formation, where it dips down to the south and disappears into the younger Maadi Formation. Just as with his father, Khafre's nearby pyramid, Menkaure's construct had to have a very well prepared rock subsurface, particularly around the northeast corner. This base is two and one half meters higher than his father's pyramid and occupies a mere quarter of the area consumed by Khafre and Khufu's pyramids. It has a core of local limestone blocks, with casing made of unfinished pink granite from Aswan up to a height of about fifteen meters. Further up, the casing was probably made of fine, Turah limestone. Because completely finished casing blocks would have probably been damaged during transport and installation, particularly at their edges, the final finishing touches were not completed until the very end of the construction process. This also made it possible to achieve a very accurate fitting along the whole surface of the pyramid walls. There is an inscription on the granite casing of the north wall that dates from the late period, and may be the one mentioned by Diodorus.
Menkaure's pyramid lies at the far end of the Giza diagonal on the very edge of the Moqattam Formation, where it dips down to the south and disappears into the younger Maadi Formation. Just as with his father, Khafre's nearby pyramid, Menkaure's construct had to have a very well prepared rock subsurface, particularly around the northeast corner. This base is two and one half meters higher than his father's pyramid and occupies a mere quarter of the area consumed by Khafre and Khufu's pyramids. It has a core of local limestone blocks, with casing made of unfinished pink granite from Aswan up to a height of about fifteen meters. Further up, the casing was probably made of fine, Turah limestone. Because completely finished casing blocks would have probably been damaged during transport and installation, particularly at their edges, the final finishing touches were not completed until the very end of the construction process. This also made it possible to achieve a very accurate fitting along the whole surface of the pyramid walls. There is an inscription on the granite casing of the north wall that dates from the late period, and may be the one mentioned by Diodorus.
Original access was provided to the inner chambers by an entrance on the axis of the north wall, about four meters above ground level. From there, a descending corridor, only partially lined with pink granite, sloped down at an angle of a little more than 26 degrees for 31 meters through the masonry core to the chambers below. This "lower corridor" terminates in a room with walls that were provided with niches. The purpose of this unusual room is still debated among scholars. However, the niches represent the first purely decorative element inside a pyramid since Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara. At the beginning of the next corridor, there is a granite barrier that is made of three blocks that were lowered after its completion. The following corridor continues at a slight downward angle until it comes out in a relatively small, east-west oriented upper antechamber with wall that are completely undecorated. The east end of this chamber is located directly under the vertical axis of the pyramid.
Here, another passageway known as the "upper corridor" runs over the "lower corridor" through a short horizontal section before climbing in a north-south direction into the pyramid The Niche room before the burial chamber core, were it terminates. It is very likely that this double corridor system signals a change in the original construction plans. The "upper corridor" was probably abandoned when the floor of the antechamber was lowered. From this, Petrie believed that the original pyramid was only about half the size that it is today, though others such as Stadelmann doubt his analysis.
Stairway leading down to the burial chamber in the antechamber, Vyse unearthed the remains of an anthropoid wooden coffin with, Menkaure's name within were human bones. Most scholars today believe this coffin was inserted, perhaps in an effort of restoration, into the pyramid during the Saite period late in Egypt's ancient history. However, the bone fragments were even more recent as revealed by radio carbon dating that shows that they probably date to the Coptic Christian period of some two thousand years ago. There is a rectangular indention in the west section of the antechamber floor, suggesting that a sarcophagus may have once been intended for this room.
However, from the middle of the floor of the antechamber, another granite corridor leads downward before becoming horizontal shortly before the actual burial chamber. Just before the entrance to the burial chamber, a short flight of steps leads to an area with six small, deep niches, sometimes known as the "cellar", which has an undetermined function, though there is a similarity to architectural elements in the Mastaba Faraun of Shepseskaf and the stepped tomb of Queen Khentkaues I. Four of the niches are on the east side, and Ricke believed that these were to hold the four canopic vessels containing Menkaure's entrails. He believed that the two additional niches on the north side might have been graced with the crowns of Upper and Lower the burial chamber with its vaulted ceiling Egypt. However, others believe it may be a forerunner of the three chambers to the left (east) in the standardized substructures of 5th and 6th Dynasty pyramids, though it may have simply been used to store funerary equipment and supplies.
Unlike the pyramids of his father and grandfather (Khufu), the rectangular burial chamber is oriented north-south. It is completely covered in pink granite, including even the gabled ceiling, which was actually hollowed out from beneath to make a round, barrel vault. The chamber lies some 15.5 meters beneath the level of the pyramid's base so that the ceiling could be constructed of nine pairs of enormous granite blocks. This construction was carried out after the modification of the plan for the substructure, which made it both difficult and laborious to complete. It required a large descending tunnel to be built in the west part of the upper antechamber, from which visitors today may actually view the top of the vaulted burial chamber.
It is very possible that both the granite burial chamber and the set of niches were built after the after the death of Menkaure on the instructions of his son and successor, Shepseskaf.
On the burial chamber's west wall, Vyse discovered a wonderful, dark basalt sarcophagus that was decorated with niches in the palace facade style. The sarcophagus was empty, and its lid was missing. However, fragments of the lid were discovered, which indicate that it was ornamented with a concave cornice. Ricke saw in this design certain similarities with the decorations in shrines dedicated to the god Anubis, and thought that they were an attempt to provide additional protection for the tomb by means of that divinity. Alas, we are left with only drawing of this piece of funerary equipment, for the ship, Beatrice, which was taking it from Egypt to the British Museum leaving Leghorn sank somewhere between Malta and Spain in 1838. Fortunately, the anthropoid coffin was sent in a separate ship that reached its destination.
Interestingly, in contrast to Khufu's and Khafre's pyramids, there have been no boat pits discovered in relationship to Menkaure's pyramid, despite intensive investigation by an Egyptian archaeologist named Abdel Aziz Saleh, who obviously thought that they should exist.
Already in the late 1630s, the English scholar and traveler John Greaves noted that the casing had largely been removed. The destruction of the pyramid lasted well into the 19th century, when Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805-1848) used some of the pink granite blocks taken from its casing to construct the arsenal in Alexandria.
The Three Queen's Pyramids:
Notable on the Giza Plateau are the three much smaller subsidiary pyramids that stand in a row along the south wall of the principal pyramid. Archaeologists attribute them to Menkaure's royal consorts.
Technical:
Main Pyramid:
Original name: Menkaure is Divine
Date of construction: 4th dynasty
Original height: 66.45 meters
Angle of inclination: 51o 20'
Lengths of sides of base 104.6 meters
Length of Causeway 608 Meters
Original name: Menkaure is Divine
Date of construction: 4th dynasty
Original height: 66.45 meters
Angle of inclination: 51o 20'
Lengths of sides of base 104.6 meters
Length of Causeway 608 Meters
Red PyramidAfter the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, the Red Pyramid at Dahshur has the largest base (only slightly smaller than Khufu's pyramid, each side measures 722 feet) of any pyramid in Egypt. However, with its sides sloping at 43° degrees 22', it is substantially shorter at 343 feet (104 meters). It is the fourth highest pyramid ever built in Egypt, with almost 160 layers of stone. Significantly, the Red Pyramid was the first successful, true, cased Pyramid built in Egypt, ushering in the era of the Giza style pyramids.
A cut-a-way of the Red Pyramid at Dahshur in Egypt built by Khufu's father, Sneferu, what really makes this pyramid special today is the lack of crowds and circus atmosphere that plagues the Giza Plateau, along with the fact that it can currently be entered without limitation. Not long ago, the area of Dahshur could not be visited, which probably explains why such an important monument receives so few visitors. However, it is only a short drive from Saqqara, and only a brief drive from Cairo.
The pyramid gets its common name from the reddish limestone used to build most of its core, but it is also sometimes referred to as the Shining or Northern Pyramid. Learning from prior mistakes, several layers of fine white limestone were used to lay the pyramid's foundation thus eliminating structural problems of earlier pyramids. Tura limestone was used as casing stone to cover the pyramid. Though some casing still remains, most has been removed. However, about every twentieth casing stone discovered had inscriptions on the back sides. Some were inscribed with the cartouche of Sneferu while others had inscriptions in red paint naming the various work crews, such as the "Green Gang" or the "Western Gang". Sneferu’s cartouche was an important discovery, particularly since there are no identifying inscriptions within the pyramid.
Perhaps greater importance is the fact that some of the casing was dated. This not only gives us clues to how long the pyramid took to build, but also the sequence of work that took place. From these, we know that the pyramid was probably begun between the twenty-second and The Pyramidion of the Red Pyramid at Dahshur twenty ninth year of Sneferu’s reign. Other dates tell us those two years later, six layers of stone had been laid. However, within four years, 30 percent of the pyramid had been completed, and the entire pyramid was finished in about seventeen years.
East of the pyramid is what remains of a mortuary temple, as well as the first capstone (Pyramidion) ever found belonging to an Old Kingdom Pyramid. It was recovered in fragments and reconstructed. The mortuary temple itself, though nothing much remains, is significant because Sneferu pioneered the east west alignment of Egyptian temples to match the path of the sun.
Like most Egyptian pyramids, the only entrance is in the north side, and leads to a 206 foot passage descend at an angle of 27 degrees to the first chamber. The first chamber has a corbelled (step) ceiling with a height of about 40 feet. In fact, all three of the chambers in this pyramid have corbelled ceilings, with between eleven and fourteen layers. Even with the same ceiling of the burial chamber in the Red Pyramid, sometimes referred to as the North Pyramid at Dahshur two million tons of stone above, this ceiling design is so strong that there are no cracks or structural problems even today.
A short passage on the south side of the first chamber leads to a second chamber. These first two chambers are at ground level, while a third chamber is higher, built within the masonry of the pyramid itself.
A short passage on the south side of the first chamber leads to a second chamber. These first two chambers are at ground level, while a third chamber is higher, built within the masonry of the pyramid itself.
The second chamber is unusual in that it lies directly under the apex of the pyramid, or center point of the pyramid. It is one of the only pyramids in Egypt to have this design layout. The final chamber, with its entrance passageway about 25 feet above the floor of the second chamber, can be accessed by a staircase (of modern construction).
The passageway leading to the final chamber is 23 feet long. Egyptologists believe this final chamber was intended to be the actual burial chamber. The room is approximately 14 feet by 27 feet, with its corbelled ceiling rising to a height of 50 feet. The floor has been excavated in an unsuccessful attempt to find other passageways.
SakkaraSakkara is best known for the Step Pyramid, the oldest known of Egypt's 97 pyramids. It was built for King Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty by the architect and genius Imhotep, who designed it and its surrounding complex to be as grand as it was unique and revolutionary. Imhotep was the first to build stone tombs in honor of the king's majesty. His many titles included 'Treasurer of the King of Lower Egypt', 'Administrator of the Great Palace', and 'Imhotep the Builder, the Sculptor, the Maker of Stone Vessels'. Imhotep may have also designed the pyramid of Djoser's successor, Sekhemkhet.
5th Dynasty kings such as Userkaf (pyramid) and Djedkare-Izezi built their pyramids at Sakkara. The last king of 5th Dynasty, Unas, decorated his burial chamber with the famous 'Pyramid Texts', spells written to help the king ascend to the heavens and descend again, which reveal the relationship of the king to the gods. 6th Dynasty kings such as Pepi I, Merenre and Pepi II built their pyramids to the south of Sakkara.
Sakkara is also famous for its private Old Kingdom tombs, which contain beautiful and revealing scenes: men force- feeding geese, cattle crossing a canal, men dragging a statue on a sled to the tomb. The best-known tombs are those of Ti, Kagemni, the 'Two Brothers', and Ptahhotep; the most famous is that of Meruruka.
During the New Kingdom (c 1570-332 BC) Memphis took second place to Thebes as Egypt's capital. But although the administration was established at Thebes, the government officials who ruled Upper Egypt lived in Memphis and were buried at Sakkara. Here Geoffrey Martin found the famous tomb that Horemheb built for himself before he became pharaoh, while he was still the overseer of Tutankhamun's army.
Martin also found the tomb of Mava, Tutankhamun's Treasurer. The first of the recent discoveries at Sakkara dates from the New Kingdom. This site is being developed by the French Archaeological Mission of the Bubasteion at Sakkara under the direction of Alain Zivie, Director of Research at the Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique at Paris.
Zivie started work at a place in Sakkara called Abwab el-Qotat, 'The Doors of the Cats', so called because hundreds of cat mummies were found here. The Ancient Egyptians worshipped the cat goddess Bastet, whose main place of worship was at Tel-Basta near Zagazig in the east
of the Delta. At Sakkara her sanctuary or Bubasteion stood above a cliff in which some New Kingdom tombs were cut, some of which were re-used much later for cat burials connected with the Bubasteion.
of the Delta. At Sakkara her sanctuary or Bubasteion stood above a cliff in which some New Kingdom tombs were cut, some of which were re-used much later for cat burials connected with the Bubasteion.
The Abwab El-Qotat site had been neglected for many years. It was dangerous because the cliff was crumbling and the tombs were falling apart, but the French archaeological team has been working here for the last 14 years. The main focus of their work has been the tomb of the Vizier Aperel or Aperia. In the 14th century BC he served as the prime minister of Lower Egypt under the Pharaohs Amenhotep III and his son Amenhotep IV, known as 'Akhenaten'. (The latter worshipped a single god, the sun's disk or 'Aten'.)
Aperia's tomb was discovered in 1987, and several seasons of excavation and consolidation of
the tomb gave Zivie the opportunity to clear almost completely a huge burial complex on four levels. The last level still contained a large part of the funerary treasure of Aperia, his wife Tauret and their son Huy, a prominent general.
the tomb gave Zivie the opportunity to clear almost completely a huge burial complex on four levels. The last level still contained a large part of the funerary treasure of Aperia, his wife Tauret and their son Huy, a prominent general.
The big surprise was the discovery of the funerary chamber, which was found hidden behind
the stairway. Despite an ancient plundering this was still full of funerary equipment and other furnishings which was an extraordinary find for archaeology as well as for art history.
the stairway. Despite an ancient plundering this was still full of funerary equipment and other furnishings which was an extraordinary find for archaeology as well as for art history.
The remains of the Vizier, his wife and their son were found in beautiful coffins, along with canopic jars of alabaster, objects of daily and religious use, and many jewels. The gold was transferred to the Cairo Museum and is on exhibit there. The beautiful rings and bracelets can be compared only with those found at Thebes at the beginning of this century.
Examining the high sand mounds on the south side of Pepi I's pyramid, the expedition found small pyramids of queens and others who may have been queens. We know that Pepi I married two sisters, the daughters of the Mayor of Abydos (which could be the first recorded case of an Egyptian god-king marrying a commoner). From the French team's work we now know for the first time the queens for whom these pyramids were built. The first, for example, was built for Queen Nwb-wnt.
In 1995 they found the pyramid of Queen Meryt-it-is. We already knew this name as that of the wife of King Khufu (Cheops), builder of the Great Pyramid. She enjoyed the titles of 'King's Wife' and 'King's Daughter'. Her newly- found pyramid raises Egypt's total of pyramids with superstructures to 97.
In 1995 they found the pyramid of Queen Meryt-it-is. We already knew this name as that of the wife of King Khufu (Cheops), builder of the Great Pyramid. She enjoyed the titles of 'King's Wife' and 'King's Daughter'. Her newly- found pyramid raises Egypt's total of pyramids with superstructures to 97.
It is expected that the expedition will find more 8th Dynasty pyramids in this area. We know that Sakkara was the burial-place of those kings, and have already located the pyramid of King Iby..
The third recent discovery at Sakkara was made while excavating in the vicinity of the pyramid of Queen Iput I, a wife of Teti, first king of 6th Dynasty. His reign was about 68 years and he married two queens, Iput and Khuit.
The historian Manetho stated that King Teti was assassinated by his bodyguard, but some scholars believe that Teti's eventual assassination was motivated by resentment at the eclipse of priestly authority. Naguib Kanawati of Macquarie University, Sydney, has uncovered evidence to support the murder theory.
The third recent discovery at Sakkara was made while excavating in the vicinity of the pyramid of Queen Iput I, a wife of Teti, first king of 6th Dynasty. His reign was about 68 years and he married two queens, Iput and Khuit.
The historian Manetho stated that King Teti was assassinated by his bodyguard, but some scholars believe that Teti's eventual assassination was motivated by resentment at the eclipse of priestly authority. Naguib Kanawati of Macquarie University, Sydney, has uncovered evidence to support the murder theory.
The name of Teti's pyramid was 'The Pyramid Which Is Enduring Of Palaces'. Its original height was 52.5m/172ft. It was first opened in 1881 and was found to resemble other 6th Dynasty pyramids. Inside was a sarcophagus of gray basalt, and near it were found Teti's viscera in a canopic chest like that of Pepi I.
Queen Iput's and Khuit's pyramids are located about a ninety meters north of Teti's. In 1897-99 V. Loret excavated it and found a large limestone sarcophagus, containing the cedar wood inner coffin of the Queen. Inside the coffin were her remains. On the bones of her right arm were found scattered remains of her necklace and a gold bracelet.
We excavated around Queen Iput's pyramid, and found most of the rooms of its funerary temple. It was decorated with beautiful scenes. Also found in the temple was a monument dating from the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser, for whom the Step Pyramid of Sakkara was built.
We excavated around Queen Iput's pyramid, and found most of the rooms of its funerary temple. It was decorated with beautiful scenes. Also found in the temple was a monument dating from the 3rd Dynasty reign of Djoser, for whom the Step Pyramid of Sakkara was built.
This monument resembles a pillar. The shape of its top is called a Serelh, which means 'palace facade'. On it is written the name of Djoser, and above it is the falcon god Horus wearing the Double Crown on Upper and Lower Egypt.
Beneath Horus is a lion or lioness followed by a jackal. They are arranged in 12 registers. We believe that it could have been part of an entrance gate for the pyramid complex of Djoser. On its top would have been a lintel with Djoser's titles. Another monument similar to this one has also been found.
Another major discovery near Queen Iput's funerary temple is the tomb of Teti's son Teti-ankh-km, which means 'Teti-ankh the Black'. The false door of the tomb bears his name, the title of 'King's Son', and his most important title of 'Overseer of Upper Egypt'.
The tomb contains beautiful scenes of daily and religious life, including ladies bringing offerings, the slaughtering of animals, the deceased standing with his wife (represented in smaller scale), the lotus flower, and many other scenes. The colors in the scenes are distinctive, and the style is characteristic of the tombs of Sakkara during the Old Kingdom. Even during the later New Kingdom, most of the tombs at Sakkara display the same style and colors.
The back wall of the niche was originally decorated with a painted scene of Aper-El, Huy, and other members of the family before the god Osiris. In the 19th Dynasty [c1319-1200 BC] an important alteration was made. The painting was partly defaced and the wall was carved with a new and very impressive representation of Osiris flanked by the goddesses Isis and Nephthys.
This example is hard to explain, but it seems clear that the figures were used as cult representations, like statues. Because of the large size of the figures the niche, now cleared and visible from a distance, is really striking.
'The smaller western niche was found empty, but the Ptolemaic masonry of the eastern niche contained the mummies of cats, the most notable one in a limestone coffin with a superb cat mummy in linen wrappings. This was the first in situ cat burial found at Sakkara. It has nothing to do with Aper-El's tomb or time period. It was dedicated to Bastet when the site was blocked up and re-used, probably in the early Ptolemaic Period (4th century BC).
In order to consolidate and protect the fragile parts of the cliff, as well as to study and understand the site, the masonry from other tombs in the vicinity were removed. Excavation work then concentrated on the tomb of the Royal Scribe and Chief of the Granaries, Mery-Sekhmet, who lived in the 19th Dynasty. This tomb, unknown before the Mission began to explore the site, is only partly preserved, but what is left is quite exceptional. The stone masonry of the Ptolemaic Period was systematically removed to reach and protect the original decorated walls of the tomb. The task was difficult and has proceeded slowly over several years.
The preserved walls of the chapel are now almost cleared and cleaned. They are decorated with superb relieves, partly inspired by the mastabas [tombs] of the Old Kingdom. In addition to religious scenes, they depict Mery-Sekhmet and his wife Iuy attending to agricultural work. Partly blackened by fire in ancient times, the reliefs and their color have been excellently cleaned and reinforced.
The main surprise awaited the Mission at the back of the tomb, where the removal of the masonry led to the discovery of a walled niche. The high humidity led to fears that nothing had been preserved in this remote part of the tomb, but this was not the case. The niche was slowly and methodically cleared in January 1994 and the winter of 1995. It contains a pair of superb statues carved in the rock.
These are standing figures more than 3ft high, still colored, of Iuy and Mery-Sekhmet, who holds a standard with small figures of Osiris and Re-Harakhte. This is the first time that such New Kingdom statues, carved into the rock, have been discovered at Sakkara. The faces of the man and woman are quite beautiful. Despite the fragility of the stone and the colors, the statues are well preserved. The joint team of Egyptian and French conservators pooled their efforts to stabilize and restore them.'
The second recent discovery at Sakkara was also made under the supervision of a famous French Egyptologist: Jean Leclant. This French expedition worked around the pyramid of Pepi I, the third king of the Old Kingdom's 6th Dynasty. In his reign Egypt reached a peak in art and culture. One of the king's courtiers, Weni, recounts that Pepi I appointed him to investigate a conspiracy on the part of Queen Imtis. But Weni does not say what she plotted against the king, nor what kind of punishment she suffered.
Jean Leclant and Jean-Philippe Lauer studied the Pyramid Texts in the pyramids of the 6th Dynasty. Unfortunately the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the inner walls of Pepi I's pyramid had crumbled to the floor. The French team accomplished one of its most important tasks, reconstructing the inscriptions by computer. It took them almost five years to complete this impressive achievement, of which everyone is all proud.
As an amendment to this article, note that there is now a Museum with a special room dedicated to Jean-Philippe Lauer's work located in Saqqara, with many other exhibits on this archaeological site, named the Imhotep Museum
SphinxMythical beast usually portrayed with the body of a lion and the head of a man, often wearing the royal nemes headcloth, as in the case of the Great Sphinx at Giza. Statues of sphinxes were also sometimes given the heads of rams (criosphinxes) or hawks (hierakosphinxes). In one unusual case from the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BC) a sphinx was given the tail of a crocodile, evidently in imitation of a beast associated with one of the Egyptian constellations. Women are rarely represented in the guise of a sphinx, and even Queen HATSHEPSUT (1473-1458 BC) assumed the form in her masculine role as king rather than as a woman.
Although the ancient Greek term sphinx meant 'strangler’, it has been suggested that the origin of the word may have been the Egyptian phrase shesep ankh (‘living image’), which was an epithet occasionally applied to sphinxes. The Egyptian sphinx, associated with both the king and the sun-god, was clearly very different from the malevolent female sphinx that features in Greek myths such as the tales of Oedipus and Perseus. Even when Egyptian sphinxes are depicted in the act of trampling on foreign enemies, as in a depiction on a shield from the tomb of TUTANKHAMUN (KV62), the slaughter was clearly regarded simply as one of the archetypal aspects of the kingship. This theme was popular in jewellery, as in the case of the 12th-Dynasty pectoral of Mereret from DAHSHUR, which bears a scene of two falcon-headed sphinxes crushing the enemies of the pharaoh.
The head of a statue of Djedefra (2566-2558 BC), discovered in his pyramid complex at ABU ROASH, is thought to be the earliest surviving fragment of a sphinx (now in the Louvre). The same site also yielded a small limestone sphinx statuette. However, the Great Sphinx at GIZA, located beside the causeway of the pyramid of KHAFRA (2558-253a BC), remains the best-known example. Measuring 73 m long and a maximum of 20 m in height, it was carved from a knoll of rock left behind after quarrying. The face probably represents Khafra himself, although it has been argued that it may represent his predecessor Djedefra. On many occasions it has been all but buried by sand and recleared the most famous instance being recorded on the 'Dream Stele’ erected directly in front of the Sphinx by Thutmose IV (1400-1390 BC), describing the promise made to him in a dream that if he cleared the sand he would become king.
A detailed study of the Great Sphinx was undertaken by the American archaeologist Mark Lehner during the 1980s, leading to the suggestion that a standing figure of a king was added between the paws of the Sphinx in the New Kingdom. As early as the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 BC) the Sphinx was already subject to reconstruction work in the form of limestone cladding, and there has been growing concern with regard to the gradual deterioration of the monument, which has lost its nose, uraeus and divine beard (fragments of the two latter features being in the collections of the British Museum and the Egyptian Museum, Cairo). More recently erosion and rising ground water have become a problem, and the site is currently the subject of environmental monitoring.
An incomplete 4th-Dynasty temple, apparently made from the same stone as the sphinx itself, was built immediately in front of the monument. It was probably intended for the worship of the three forms of the sun: KHEPRI in the morning, RA at midday, and ATUM in the evening. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was identified with Horemakhet ('Horus in the horizon'), and a new temple dedicated to Horemakhet was constructed to the north of the earlier building, which would by then have been completely immersed in sand. This New Kingdom temple was also dedicated to the cult of Hauron, a Canaanite desert-god who may have become identified with the Great Sphinx partly because it was buried in the desert.
From at least as early as the New Kingdom, avenues of sphinxes lined the processional ways (dromoi) leading to many temples, including those of KARNAK and LUXOR. The main entrance to the temple of Amun at Karnak is flanked by rows of criosphinxes, while the pylon of the Luxor temple was approached through avenues of human-headed sphinxes bearing the cartouche of the 30th-Dynasty ruler Nectanebo I (380-362 BC).
Step Pyramid ComplexThe Great Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara is one of those superstars of Egyptian monuments that is almost always on the itinerary of antiquity tours to Egypt, and for good reason. Few monuments hold a place in human history as significant as that of this Pyramid. It can be said without exaggeration that the Step Pyramid complex constitutes a milestone in the evolution of monumental stone architecture, both in Egypt and in the world as a whole. It is the beginning of an evolutionary period that would eventually see the polished, smooth faced true pyramids of the 4th Dynasty master builders.
Here limestone was first used on a large scale as a construction material, and here the idea of a monumental royal tomb in the form of a pyramid was first truly realized. In a 19th Dynasty inscription found in South Saqqara, the ancient Egyptians were already describing its builder as Entry Colonnade of the Djoser Complex at Saqqara the "opener of stone", which can be interpreted as meaning the inventor of stone architecture.
According to tradition, it was built for Horus Netjerikhet, better known as Djoser, a major ruler of Egypt's 3rd Dynasty, by Imhotep, Egypt's most famous architect who was subsequently deified during the New Kingdom. Djoser is actually the name given to this king by visitors to the site one thousand years after its construction, but actually the only name found on its walls is that of Netjerikhet. The step pyramid dominates this antiquity site.
It would be hard to overemphasize the dramatic leap in architectural size and sophistication represented in the Step Pyramid. Prior to Djoser's complex, the most common material for an overall view of the Djoser Complex at Saqqara large buildings was mudbrick. However, it should be noted that this may not be, in its essence, the first step pyramid. Several small mastabas at Abusir seem to have perhaps had as many as three steps and date to the second half of the 1st Dynasty. Prior to its expansion, Djoser's complex also went through a stage where it had only four steps.
It would be hard to overemphasize the dramatic leap in architectural size and sophistication represented in the Step Pyramid. Prior to Djoser's complex, the most common material for an overall view of the Djoser Complex at Saqqara large buildings was mudbrick. However, it should be noted that this may not be, in its essence, the first step pyramid. Several small mastabas at Abusir seem to have perhaps had as many as three steps and date to the second half of the 1st Dynasty. Prior to its expansion, Djoser's complex also went through a stage where it had only four steps.
The complex is surrounded by a wall of fine white Tura limestone, which when built, measured some 10.5 meters (34 feet) high and was 1,645 meters (5,397 ft) long. Within was an area of about 15 ha (37 acres), which would have been the size of a small town during the Old Kingdom. It contained a vast complex of functional, as well as what we believe were dummy buildings, including pavilions of the North and South, large tumuli and terraces, finely carved facades, ribbed and fluted columns, stairways, platforms, shrines chapels and life-size statues. There was even a replica of the pyramid substructure, called the South Tomb, but the centerpiece was, of course, the Step Pyramid itself, rising to a height of about 60 meters (197 feet), in six steps and containing some 330,400 cubic meters (11,668,000 cubic feet) of clay and stone. Many of the structures contain Another View of the Djoser Step Pyramid elements that become familiar forms, but here we see for the first time. Of course, there is the pyramid structure itself, but also we see the first colonnade, the first Hypostyle, portico, life-sized statues, torus-moldings and cavetto cornice. In fact, many of these elements survived as members of the hieroglyphic sign-list of sacred buildings.
The pyramid itself was perhaps not imagined, in its initial construction, as a step pyramid, but rather as a large, square mastaba. However, the fact that it is square, whereas most all mastaba style tombs are usually rectangular, suggests that the builders may have, from the beginning, planned a stepped pyramid.
Jean-Philippe Lauer, the main excavator of the site, believed that it took six stages for the structure to eventually reach its final form. When the builders began to transform the mastaba, Plan of the Pyramid Complex of Djoser at Saqqara they began by building a crude core of roughly shaped stones with a fine limestone casing and a layer of packing in between. While this technique had been used for mastabas, now there was a profound difference. They abandoned horizontal beds and began to build in accretions that leaned inward. They employed larger and better carved blocks that no longer needed to be packed with large amounts of mortar. Instead, they used clay only as an aid to setting each block on a bed that inclined with the accretion layer. In the initial stage, they encased the king's mastaba in fine limestone and then only a few years later entirely covered it with the Step Pyramid.
Not only was the pyramid itself build in stages, but so too were the surrounding structures. Evidence suggests that the builders partially buried the dummy structures, consisting of the Pavilions of the North and South, the South Tomb and Sed Chapels, almost immediately after they built them during the first stage.
The builders were strongly influenced by the architecture of the Early Dynastic Period, which had used light, natural materials such as mud brick, wood, reeds, straw and matting. Here, the results of their efforts were an original, monumental and therefore in many respects, bizarre work, which united in matchless harmony, the mentality of earlier architecture with a new order of stone builders. Essentially, the earlier architecture was copied in stone.
The builders were strongly influenced by the architecture of the Early Dynastic Period, which had used light, natural materials such as mud brick, wood, reeds, straw and matting. Here, the results of their efforts were an original, monumental and therefore in many respects, bizarre work, which united in matchless harmony, the mentality of earlier architecture with a new order of stone builders. Essentially, the earlier architecture was copied in stone.
Lauer distinguished between functional versus fictional structures. With some elements, it was enough that their form or image be present in the facade. Their interior could be abbreviated. They are what have been called dummy buildings. The buildings served the king's ka in the Afterlife. The functional buildings may have been necessary for the actual conduct of the funerary ceremonies. But what was above ground is only part of the story.
Below ground, the Egyptians created an underground structure on a scale previously unknown, quarrying out more than 5.7 kilometers (about 3 1/2 miles) of shafts, tunnels, chambers, galleries and magazines. A central corridor and two parallel ones extend over 365 meters (1,198 feet), A part of the Enclosure Wall of the Great Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara connecting 400 rooms. These and other subterranean features surround one of the most complicated tangles of tunnels and shafts the Egyptians ever created, below the pyramid itself.
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