One of the largest cities in the world...Cairo

About Cairo:
Cairo, Egypt is an amazing city full of life and movement, and it is that way almost 24 hours every day, with the noisy honking of horns, children playing in the streets and merchants selling their wears and services. And here, the Egyptians are most at home in this powerful, modern and ancient city

Cairo, Egypt provides great culture, including art galleries and music halls, such as the Cairo Opera House; as well it should, being one of the largest cities in the world. It also provides some of the grandest accommodations and restaurants in the world, such as the Four Seasons and the Cairo Marriott.

Cairo offers an incredible selection of shopping, leisure and nightlife activities. Shopping ranges from the famous Khan el-Khalili souk, (or bazaar) largely unchanged since the 14th century, to modern air-conditioned centers displaying the latest fashions. All the bounty of the East can be here. Particularly good buys are spices, perfumes, gold, silver, carpets, brass and copperware, leatherwork, glass, ceramics and mashrabiya. Try some of the famous street markets, like Wekala al-Balaq, for fabrics, including Egyptian cotton, the Tentmakers Bazaar for appliqué-work, and Mohammed Ali Street for musical instruments and, although you probably won't want to buy, the Camel Market makes a fascinating trip. This is, and has been for over a thousand years, truly a shopper's paradise.

Al-Azhar Mosque 
Jawhar al-Siqilli, commander of Caliph Al-Mu'izz, started constructing Al- Azhar Mosque in (359 H. / 970 A.D), following the establishment of the Cairo walls and completed it in (361 H. / 972 A.D). It was the first Fatimid mosque to be built in Cairo, and the fourth to be built in Egypt after the great mosques of Ibn Al-As. Al-Askar and Ibn Tulun. From the outset the Fatimids focused instruction of the Shiite doctrine in this great Mosque. Circles for learning were held, and great scholars of theology gathered to exchange knowledge. Since that time AI-Azhar gained its worldwide reputation as a centre of religious education for the entire Muslim world and stands witness to a host of important events in the long history of Islamic Egypt.
The restoration works, and renovations conducted in this mosque, as well as the annexes and extensions added to it, stand apart. When it was first planned, the mosque was rectangular, not exceeding 85 by 70 meters in area. These dimensions were later increased to 130 by 120 meters. This is why the architecture of this monument seems so complex at present. The main facade is located to the northwest, and is about 91 meters long. It contains the well-known entrance of Bab al-Muzayyinin which has been attributed to Prince Abdul-Rahman Katkhuda in (1167H. / 1753 A.D), who added a great deal to the mosque. This entrance contains a chain of overlapping arches and leads to an open large courtyard ending with Sultan Qaytbay's entrance. Sultan Qaytbay has also ordered many renovations in the mosque in 873 Hegira, including a minaret on top of the entrance.

To the right side of the courtyard stands a school known as the Taybarsiyyah School named after prince 'Ala'-ud-Din Taybars who established it in (709 H. /1309 A.D). This school was later renovated by Prince Abdul-Rahman Katkhuda, and restored by the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments in 1892. Taybarsiyyah School consists of a square area divided into three aisles with two arcades, the arches of which are parallel to the wall of the qiblah. The niche of the qiblah is regarded as one of the most perfect niches of the Bahri Mamluk state. To the left is the Aqbughawiyya School which was established by Prince 'Ala'-ud-Din Aqbugha Abdul-Wahid, treasurer of king Al-Nasir-Muhammad Ibn Qalawun in (740 H. /1340 A.D) This school has been restored and houses now, together with the Tabarsiyyah School, the library of Al-Azhar.
The Qaytbay entrance leads to the courtyard of the old mosque of the Fatimid period, measuring 59 by 43 meters, and is surrounded by four riwaqs the longest of which is that of the qiblah. It has five aisles, while the western riwaq, built by Caliph Al-Hafiz li-Din-Allah, has only one aisle. When the mosque was first built, it had only three riwaqs to the east, north and south. Al-Hafiz added an arcade in all four directions of the courtyard of the mosque.
The aisles of the qiblah riwaq are cut across by a transept to the old Fatimid niche (mihrab). To this transept Hafiz added a dome with stucco decorations in (544 H. / 1149 A.D). The two domes near the aisle of the qiblah riwaq in the north and south have fallen to ruin. Three domes including the niche dome were renewed in the Mamluk period. The arches of the riwaqs are based on pointed marble columns of various styles. The Fatimid arches are known as "keel arches".

To the north of this riwaq stands a Mamluk school known as the Jawhariyyah School, which was built by Prince Jawhar Al-Qanqaba'i (840 H. /1440 AD). It is a small school with four Iwans surrounding a small courtyard. Its major feature is the beautiful stucco decorations of the ceiling and walls.
Next to the qiblah riwaq is a large riwaq reached by ascending a few steps, built by Prince Abdul-Rahman Katkhuda in 1167 Hegira. It consists of four aisles, the arches of which go parallel to the qiblah wall and are cut across by a transept. In the middle of the qiblah stands marble niche covered by a dome. The riwaq was covered by a wooden ceiling, that is still in good shape after having been renewed by the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments in 1888 A.D. Annexed to this riwaq in the southeastern direction is a group of buildings founded by Prince Abdul-Rahman Katkhuda as well, including a public fountain, an ablution place, a kuttab, a minaret and special riwaq for Upper Egyptian students.
Al Azhar Mosque, at present, has only five minarets, the oldest of which is found by the entrance of the Aqbughawiyyah School (740 Hegira). The others are the minaret of Sultan Qaytbay (873 Hegira), minaret of Sultan Al-Ghuri (915 Hegira) with its twin finials, and two more minarets to the east built by Prince Abdul-Rahman Katkhuda.
The construction of the old Fatimid mosque of Al-Azhar has obviously been influenced by some architectural and ornamental elements from North African styles. The restoration and extension to this monument continued during the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors. Said, Ismail, Tawfiq, and Abbas Hilmi.

Ben Ezra Synagogue
The Jewish synagogue stands in the midst of the Coptic churches. Once this synagogue was belonging to the Hanging Church but the Patriarch Mikhail III the 56 (fifty sixth pope) was forced to sell it to the Jews so as to be able to pay the taxes estimated by the governor Ahmed Ibn Tulun at the value of 20,000 gold Dinars annually.
The Jews say about this synagogue that it goes back to the pre - Christ era, and that Moses the prophet lived in that area.
If this is right it means that the old synagogue was destroyed.
Then the church of angel Michael was built in its stead, his church used to belong to the Hanging church. Then the Jews bought it later on and transformed it into a synagogue once more.
They also say that Moses and Jeremiah knelt in this place; consequently a special place called Guenizah was built inside the synagogue. The Guenizah is as safe place for keeping Moses Torah which was incomplete; it was put by Ezra the scribe. Later on, the Rabbi Ibrahim Ben Ezra Visited Egypt from Jerusalem in 1115 A.D. It was then that he rebuilt the synagogue and it still bears his name. Among the attractions in the Ben Ezra Synagogue are:
1 - Moses Atlas which is called, the Miracle Rock, or
Jeremiah's tomb.
2 - An old Torah (written on deer skin about 475 B.C.)
3 - An arabesque ceiling built in 1115 A.D.
4 - The Guenizah place.
5 - A clock of wood on which is carved Kufic writing referring to visit of Amr Ibn El'As to that area.
6 - A drawing of a seven branched candelabra on deer skin.
7 - The spring (Mikva) 900 years old dating with the synagogue.
Imam Shafi'i Dome
One of the most significant domes in Egypt, it belongs to Imam Abdallah Ibn Muhammad Ibn Idris Ibn al-Abbass, the prestigious theorist of one of the four major Islamic doctrines. Imam Shafi'i was born in 150 H. came to Egypt in 198 H., died in 204 H. and was buried in a shrine, which was later covered by a small dome.
The Imam Shafi'i dome had been carefully tended until Saladin had his tomb and his Salahiyyah madrasah built next to it. Sultan Al-Kamil, then, had a dome built on the shrine of Imam Shafi'i in (608 H. /1211 A.D). This cost 50000 dinars at the time. It was restored by Sultan Qaytbay in (885 H. /1480 A.D), and by Sultan Ghuri and Prince Katkhuda in (1176 H. /1762 A.D). A public fountain was added by the latter, who also restored the present mosque built in place of the Salahiyyah Madrasah. The dome, the oldest made of wood in Egypt, was covered with lead. It covers a square of sides 15meters long on the inside and 20.5meters on the outside; the walls being 2.75meters thick. The southeastern wall has three niches, the biggest of which is the middle one. All niches are covered with inscribed wood. A fourth niche (mihrab) was erected down the eastern corner for the purpose of correcting the direction of the qiblah.
The lower part of the shrine is covered with coloured marble dado and inscriptions. The transitional zone of the dome is considered one of its most significant architectural and ornamental elements. It was made of wood consisting of three rows of squinches. The lower one having five squinches with seven others on top in the middle row, then three others at the upper zone. There are four shrines inside the dome, first: Imam Shafi'i tomb has a wooden cover of pyramidal shape which was ordered by Saladin, and then there is the shrine of the grave of Sultan Kamil's mother built in 608H., with a wooden cover on top. The third also has a wooden cover that belongs to Sultan Al- Kamil himself, and the fourth shrine is that of Al- Sayyid Muhammad Ibn Abdul- Hakam, who was one of the earliest persons to be buried in the cemetery of Imam Shafi'i.
The exterior of the dome consists of three zones: a main square base 6.3meters high, with a stone skirt on top. The middle part represents the major external façade of the transitional zone while the dome’s neck has 16 windows. The dome ends with a copper pole carrying a small boat, symbol of the vast knowledge of the Imam topped with a crescent

Mosque of Rifa'i
This enormous structure lies opposite the Madrasah of Sultan Hassan, upon the site of a former Rifa'i zawiya, acquired and demolished by the Princess Khushyar, consort of Ibrahim Pasha and the mother of the Khedive Ismail (ruled 1863-79). The architect Hussayn Pasha Fahmy was empowered to build a mosque with tombs for Sheikh 'Ali al-Rifa'i, a saint formerly buried in the zawiya and Sheikh 'Abdallah al-Ansari, a companion of the Prophet, as well as mausoleum for the founder and her descendants. The mosque was begun in 1869, but a series of vicissitudes, structural and financial, followed by the deaths of both the architect and his patroness, led to the suspension of work in about 1880. It was not until 1905 that work was begun again and the mosque was finished more or less as originally planned by Hussayn Pasha. The decorations, for which the architect had left no plans, were executed by Max Herz Bey, chief architect for the Committee from models taken from the best Cairene mosques.
The main or royal entrance, at the western end of the building, is now closed. One enters from the south side, across from Sultan Hassan. Immediately in front is the tomb of Sheikh 'Ali al-Rifa'i, the head of the Rifa'i tariqa or order of dervishes. He was considered a saint in his lifetime and people still walk around his tomb, touching their hands to the sandalwood screen, while seeking his blessed intercession in their lives. To the left of this tomb, behind the mashrabiya screen, in other chambers lie the cenotaphs of King Fuad (ruled 1917-36) and his mother, and Muhammad Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, buried here in 1980.
To the right of Sheikh 'Ali's tomb is the sanctuary of the mosque. It is an impressive place, both in its monumental size and in the massing and variety of its ornamentation.
Its statistics are also impressive. Nineteen different kinds of marble from seven different countries are used; the forty-four grand columns, and the eighteen intricately worked window grilles, each cost LE 1,000. Gold for gilding the ceiling was imported from Turkey for LE 25,000 between 1906 and 1912, when such a sum was large.
The patroness and her family are buried in funerary chambers along the north walls. There are also the tombs of Ismail, his mother, two daughters, two sons, and three wives, one of whom was French, as indicated by the crosses on her cenotaph. Sultan Hussayn Kamil, who reigned from 1914 to 1917, and his wife are also buried here..

Sultan Hassan Collage (Madrasah)
This madrasah was established by Sultan Al-Nasir Hassan son of Muhammad Ibn Qalawun, who was first named Qimari, but later on he chose the name Hassan by which he became known. He came to power in (748 H./1347A.D) but was overthrown in (752 L/1351A.D). In (755 H./1354A.D) he was reinstated to the throne of Egypt once more. In (762 H. /1361 A.D) he had a serious conflict with prince Yalbugha, which ended with his arrest together with a number of his supporters in Matariyyah.
The location of this madrasah was previously known as Suq al-Khayl (the horse market) and it had one of the most wonderful palaces established by Sultan Al-Nasir Hassan in (738 H. /1337 A.D) for Prince Yalbugha Al-Yahyawi. This palace survived until it was demolished by order of Sultan Al-Nasir Hassan to be replaced by his madrasah, the construction of which was commenced in (757 Hegira) and was meticulously followed up throughout his lifetime. Sultan Hassan is quoted as having said, "This mosque cost so much that at times I wished I could stop, had it not been for fear lest it may be reported that the King of Egypt was unable to finish something he had started". In fact, the Sultan Hassan School has no equivalent in the whole Islamic world.
The area of the madrasah is 7906 square meters, and it consists of a middle open courtyard and four Iwans. Both the courtyard and the Iwans may be reached through an entrance to the right side of the main facade, which is located to the northeast. This entrance is decorated with wonderful ornamentations that start from the base upwards, and comprise floral and geometric decorations, and Kufic and Naskhi inscriptions. The entrance also has two remarkable niches. Originally the door to this entrance had two wooden leaves embossed with copper ornaments but they were moved by King Al- Mu 'Ayyad Shaykh to his own mosque in (819.H. /1416 A.D). The facades are decorated with beautiful squinches with six protruding tauts 1.4 meters high with floral crenelations on top. The decorations of this entrance are unparalleled in the entire Islamic architecture in Egypt and they resemble their Seljuk counterparts.
This magnificent entrance leads a durkah, which is a square area made up of small Iwans covered by vaults, with a beautiful dome in stone in its midst. At the front part of this durkah is a stone bench ornamented with colored marble. The durkah itself has a stucco window and decorative circles. The southeastern Iwans of this durkah leads to a staircase of five steps leading in turn to an arched corridor, which finally opens on the courtyard of the madrasah.
The courtyard measures 34.6 by 32 meters and its floor is made of colored marble with an ablution fountain in the middle. The fountain is covered with a wooden dome supported by eight columns with verses from the Holy Koran inscribed all around it in addition to the date of completion of the construction works of the madrasah in (1088 H./1677A.D). Around the courtyard there are four Iwans the largest of which is that of the qiblah, unprecedented in size and height. It is surrounded by a stucco frieze with floriated Kufic inscriptions and very delicate ornaments.
A caller's marble bench stands in the middle of this Iwan. At the front part of this Iwan is the mihrab cased in colored marble and decorated with floral ornaments. Next to the mihrab is a marble minbar with a copper plated door. The mihrab has a door on each side leading to the mausoleum, which lies behind it. One of these doors is gold plated and has inscriptions of Sultan Hassan's name on it, while the other door has completely lost its ornaments.
The mausoleum is square in form, each side measuring 21 meters, and is 48meters high with a marble mihrab decorated with delicate ornaments. Its walls are cased in marble 8meters high with a wooden frieze on top. Its dome was completed in 764 Hegira. It is worthy of mention that the courtyard is surrounded by four schools for the four theological doctrines.

The Church of Abu Sarga (St. Sergius)It is customarily known that this church was built over the actual spot where the holy family lived during their flight into Egypt. For this reason many people visit it every year.
The building of this church dates from the end of the 4th century or at the beginning of the 5th. It was called after saints Sergius and Bacchus who were soldiers and suffered martyrdom at the beginning of the 4th century. This Church is as important as that of El-Moallaqa it is 27m. in length. 17m. in width and 15m. in height, and is 3 meters below the level of the street.
It has a nave flanked by two aisles and ends to the east wit three sanctuaries separated by iconostases delicately inlaid with ivory and ebony. The church nave is surrounded by ten columns on which are found mural paintings of the disciples of Jesus the Christ, the ceiling of the church is in the form of a pointed gable followed by a half cylindrical one. The church walls stand out for their precious icons, and there used to exist an altar of, walnut wood being a masterpiece of the art carpentry it is at present on exhibition at the Coptic-Museum.

The Church of Sitt barbara (St. Barbara)
This church was built towards the end of the 4th or at the beginning of the 5th century and called after the Sts. Aba Cyr" WA Yohanna (Sts Cyr and John), it was later dedicated to St. Barbara.
The beautiful Young Barbara:
Born in Nicomedia in Asia Minor in the 3rd century, the daughter of very wealthy pagan named Diphorus; this saint was converted to Christianity by the Egyptian savant Origen.
She consecrated her life to the love of the Christ and vowed celibacy.
Her father whom she reprimanded for worshipping the idols had her shut up in a tower and when she persisted in following the Christian faith he caused her to suffer martyrdom.
The church of sitt Barbara is 26m. In length, 14m. 50 in width and 15m in height. It is one of the finest Coptic Churches.
After its destructions in the 10th century this church as well as that of St. Sergius were restored by Ibn El-Abah, the minister of the caliph Al-Mustansir in the same old style it kept its beautiful carved door made of sycamore wood and adorned with intricate designs. An iconostasis of sycamore wood was added making one more masterpiece. It is made of forty - five inlaid panels with reliefs.
Beginning with the narthex the visitor will find to the right over the door of the staircase which gives access to the balconies, some beautiful icons.
Passing south there is an iconostasis in wood inlaid with ivory and on some panels there are verses of psalms carved in beautiful Arabic writing.
In the interior of the sanctuary (on the right) there is a door giving access to a chapel.
At the end of the central nave is the iconostasis of the south sanctuary. It is of wood inlaid with carved ivory in relief, and dated from the 13th century.
In the nave (in front of the iconostasis) there is a pulpit resting on ten marble columns with decorations in relief intermingled with crosses. The iconostasis of the north sanctuary dates from the Fatimid period.
There is another chapel to the north called after Sts. Cyr and John.

The Citadel of SaladinThe Citadel, as it stands today, is a collection of buildings, dating back to several eras. It contains various, military, religious, secular and civil constructions that have overlapped to constitute an intricate archeological collection involving monuments from the Ayyubid period as well as of later periods, such as the Mamluk period , the Ottoman period and the Muhammad Ali's period. The Citadel's buildings will always be a rich field of research for archeologists due to the potential discovery of walls or antiques that might tell their stories in time.
The Location of the Citadel:
Saladin ordered the construction of his Citadel in (572 H. /1176 A.D), assigning this responsibility to his minister, Baha'- ud-Din Qaraqush. It was then built on a part of a separate elevation of the Muqattam Hills. The main purpose of its construction was of course to fulfill Saladin's intention of establishing and maintaining his control and power over Egypt besides protection against potential dangers from the supporters of the Fatimid Caliphs in Egypt especially after having arrested and driven out Fatimid princes from the eastern and western palaces, and replacing them by his own princes. The Citadel ad a very significant defensive function, namely, to protect Cairo in case it is subjected to any assault.
The construction of this citadel was accompanied by Saladin's major defensive project of having the four capital cities of Egypt surrounded by a stone wall and provided with strong defensive towers. He had embarked on this project since (566 H. /1176. A.D), when he was the minister of the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Adid. This process was simultaneous with the commencement of the construction of the Citadel in (572 H. /1176 A.D). Finally he had all the four capital cities of Islamic Egypt, Al- Fustat, Al- Askar, Al- Qata'i and Cairo, surrounded by a strong defensive wall.
It was said that, when Saladin the Ayyubid wanted to choose the site or his Citadel, he wanted to make sure that the site enjoyed good orientation as regards the wind and the weather in general, so he put a piece of meat in the selected spot and left it for one day and one night . Finding that it had become rotten, he chose another spot and conducted the same experiment. When he found that this meat did not rot in two days and two nights he chose this new site. In any case his choice of this spot was perfect from the climatic and defensive points view, for no contemporary weapon could have reached this fortified spot at that time.
The mosques and cemeteries erected in this place were removed and the ground was paved and made ready for the Citadel. Moreover, some smaller pyramids of Giza had also fallen to ruin and their stones were employed in the construction of the Citadel, a process that continued throughout Saladin's time to be resumed and completed during the reign of King Al- Kamil Muhammad, and in later periods as well.
The Planning of the Citadel:
The Citadel is divided into two major parts; the first is the northern part, about 1800 square meters, which represents the nucleus of the citadel. The second is the southern part, where the royal palaces stood like a small royal town inside the Citadel. This part looks like an unfixed rectangle with a clear protrusion that may be seen from the northern side. The Citadel itself is separated from Muqattam Hill by a deep ditch. The construction of the Citadel was completed in (579 H. /1183 A.D.) and it began to be used as royal headquarters in (604 H. /1207 A.D.) by Sultan Al-Kamil Muhammad who was the first ruler of Egypt to build his palace and move the royal headquarters to the Citadel.
The northern part, about 650 meters from east to west and 317meters from south to north, is surrounded by huge towers. The two major parts are connected together with a common area, though separated by a thick wall with fortified huge towers.
The walls and towers of the Citadel were built with massive stones supported by a large number of defensive towers. Its gates, ten meters high, pierce walls as thick as three meters, at several points. Some of the towers are even higher than 20 meters. The walls and towers are linked together with a thick wall with a passage 90 meters long, covered with a stone ceiling based on cushions. Some parts of the passage have tunnels and cross vaults, with an open upper passage, he passage leads to square and narrow chambers each side of which is 2.5meters and they are separated by areas ranging from 8.5sq.m. to 12. 5sq.m.. These passages have apertures towering above the interior for natural lighting. No apertures show from the exterior of the Citadel except for some conical slits for the arrows. The towers, built during the reign of Sultan Al-Kamil Muhammad are square in shape rising three storeys; two are roofed and the third is open to the sky. The chambers of the towers are large in size and rectangular in shape (5x2.5meters) each with two side rooms that look like two arms each having three slits for arrows and lances.
The Citadel has the following gates to the north: the Mudarrag gate, next to the main tower and the Qiblah gate, which is the present internal gate that connects the southern and northern walls. The Citadel has huge and small towers to the north including the Muqattam tower, the Suffah tower, the Ilwah tower, the Kirkilian tower, the Turfah tower, the Mattar tower, the Muballat tower, the Imam tower, the Ramlah tower, the Haddad tower and the Sahara tower. The Mudarrag gate, which is also known as Sariyah’s gate, is located to the left of the new gate in the western wall of the Citadel, built by Muhammad Ali to function as a main gate. The foundation plate is on the interior arch.
Joseph's Well, at the southern end near Al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun's mosque, is one of the significant features of the interior part of the Citadel .It was dug with the purpose of supplying water to the Citadel in case of siege. The well is 90 meters deep and consists of two floors or slopes; the higher is 50 meters and the lower 40 meters high. A water wheel lifts the water to the higher levels. During the Turkish rule the well was connected to the Nile by means of a deep subterranean tunnel.

The Fortress of Babylon
The Fortress of Babylon at old Cairo, within which lies the Coptic museum was erected inside" it, was built by Trajan in 98.B.C. on the river Nile.
Doubtless it was smaller than in the next period, because the Emperor Arcadius renewed it and enlarged some parts of it in 395A.D. But some people say that it goes back to ancient Egyptian period. It was also said that the fortress was built instead of the Babylon citadel which was built by the Persians near here on top of the mountain, and the Arab historians say that the Persians began its architecture then the Romans completed it. Diodorus the historian said: That the prisoners of the war who were captured by Ramses II disobeyed him and occupied the Habnin citadel on the river side towards Memphis to the north; they fought with the provinces nearby and not stop fighting until Ramses gave them their freedom and security. And since they obeyed him and became calm by permitting them to live in the region which they occupied that it be a private colony so they built there a city which they called Babylon, in the name of the capital of their home country.
John Bishop of Nikius wrote about this fortress in the seventh century A.D., the following: Nebuchadnezzar built at this place an old citadel and he called it the citadel of Babylon, this was after his conquest of Egypt, and after exiling the Jews to it, in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem.
This citadel was called Babylon after the name of the capital of the Assyrians and this co-ordinate with Jeremiah (46: 13- 27).
Classical historians agreed that the fortress took its name from the town where it was built which was called Babylon probably derived from the ancient Egyptian name (pr. Hap. n. Iwn) or the place of the God Habi at Heliopolis. Doubtless this fortress resembles the Roman Fortresses in Europe and North Africa and from which we can understand its construction.
In building the Fortress lime stones and the red stones were used. The walls of the towers are about 60-ft. (18 meters high) and their diameters 100ft. (31 meters). The thickness of the walls is about 8ft. (3 meters). The floor of the Fortress is lower than the height of St. Georges street by six meters, and that is because of the accumulations during the ages. The exterior entrance of the museum is built on the west gate of the fortress.
It is flanked by two enormous towers. One can still be seen, while the other is hidden beneath the Greek Church of St. George. The Nile flowed under these towers and boats were moored there. Recent excavations show that there was a river harbour between these two enormous towers. In the interior of the museum we can visit the south part of the fortress, where two enormous bastions still stand with a magnificent ancient gateway between them.
In one of the bastions there was a mill; near which was an oven for baking bread on one of the two bastions the hanging church (Moallaqa) it rests on a huge pillar built of burnt - brick the other part of the church and part of the old wing of the museum, are built on the columned hall and on two other halls.

The Hanging "Suspended" Church
This church which is consecrated to the Virgin Mary and to St. Dimiana was known as the Hanging church. It is thus called so because it is built over the roman fortress on top of which has been put palm trees wood with a layer of stones over the Fortress to be the ground of the church so the hanging church is the unique church without domes, it has a wooden roof in the shape of Noah's Ark.
It is known that Noah's Ark is one of the symbols which representing the church and salvation. It is commonly known that this church goes back to the late third century and the beginning of the fourth century A.D.
Some historians however think that it was built ages before that, as it was a roman temple, which then it was transformed into a" roman church. After that became Coptic Church, the proofs are:
The discovery of wall paintings belonging to the roman pagan gods at the western side of the right aisle of the church, in front of Saint Takla Himanot's alter. Certainly, these paintings goes back to the era before Christianity, but were covered with Layers of Plaster this was during the Last restoration of the church in 1984.
From estimating the age of a wooden specimen from the floor of Saint Mark's church (at the Hanging church) was taken during the last restoration and the renewal of the church in 1984. This was evaluated by the archeologists by means of Cairo's Laboratory for the history of archeology, by radiating carbon 14. The age of this specimen goes back to the year 140-150 B.C.
This seems to be proved by what remains of the original wood-work at the Coptic Museum representing the triumphal entry of Jesus the Christ to Jerusalem.
This church was very spacious but became much" smaller throughout the ages after the modifications, the last one of which was by Obeid by Khozam during 1491 A.M. (1775. A.D.).
The nave of the church is divided into parts separated from each other by 3 rows of marble pillars.
The church of El- Moallaqa played an important part in the history of the Coptic Church. It became the seat of the patriarchs after transferring it from Alexandria to Al- Fustat and it is recorded that Anba Christodolos the 66th patriarch (A.D. 1039- 1070) was the first Pope to chant the Holy Liturgy in it.
The Holy Virgin appeared in in a vision to Anba Abram the 62nd Patriarch (968- 971), who had spent three days in prayer and fasting, when the Caliph, Al-lmam El-Mouiz Lidin illah, (about the year 969 A.D.) asked him to move the Moqattam hill in order to prove the words of the gospel "If you have Faith as a grain of mustard seed, you shall say to this mountain: remove from hence to yonder place, and it shall remove" "Matt. 1720" According to that story, there was a great earthquake and the mountain moved.
After witnessing this miracle the caliph allowed the Patriarch Abram to restore the churches of El-Moallaqa and Abu-Sefein.
The seat of Saint Mark remained a long time in El-
Moallaqa church till it was transferred to the church of Abu Sefein in the 14th century.
There are 110 Icons. The oldest of which goes back to the 8th century but the majority of them goes back to the 1493 A.M. (1777 A.D.) and some were painted in the time of Nakhla Al-Baraty Bey (1898 A.D.) who was the supervisor of the church at that time.
EI-Moallaqa is 23.5 m length and 18.5 m breadth and 9.5 m height.

The church's iconostasis are carved in ebony and ivory and in front of the middle alter in the nave of the church there is pulpit which rests on fifteen columns with decorations in relief and adorned with mosaics. Among the fifteen pillars there are two attached to the main body of the pulpit representing Saint Mark and Saint Luke evangelists. Who are not from the twelve disciples". The first pillar of the other thirteen stands in front and represent Jesus the Christ, while the other twelve, the disciples. We notice that each two similar pillars are put together and this is because the Christ Sent His disciples two by two. It dates from the fifth century. Anba Abram - during whose time the miracle of the Moqattam Mountain happened -is buried, under this pulpit.
The frescos which decorated the walls of the church long ago with its pillars were damaged during the periods of persecution, their remains are found at the eastern wall of Saint Tecla Hymanot's Alter. These frescos go back to the fourth and fifth century A.D. There is also a picture on the pillar in the church's nave which goes back to the fourth century, besides there are layers of fresco lately discovered.
There are seven alters in the Moallaqa church three of them are found in the main aisle and which are: The alter of Saint George in the northern side followed by the Alter of the Virgin Mary then the Alter of Saint John the Baptist.
The right aisle contains three alters among which is the alter of Tecla Hymanot the Ethiopian Saint at the northern side followed by two alters recently discovered. Next to them, there is the Baptistery which goes back to the fifth century. It is made of solid marble bearing decorations of wavy lines, a symbol of water in the Hieroglyphic language.
There is also an upper church of Saint Mark and its alter is the seventh one.
These alters have very intricate iconostasis, they are in ebony inlaid with walnut and cedar wood without using nails or glue. They go back to the tenth - thirteenth century.
Entering the right aisle, the visitor passes through a door made of cedar wood decorated with translucent layers of ivory dated to the eleventh century A.D.
The iconostasis of Saint George's alter is decorated with seventeen icons depicting the tortures of the Saint Mean while, there are seven icons above the Virgin's alter which are from right to left: Saint Paul the Apostle, Archangel Michael, John the Baptist, Jesus the Christ sitting on his throne, the Holy Virgin Mary, Gabriel the Angel, Peter the apostle.
The iconostasis of Saint John the Baptist’s alter is decorated with seven icons depicting his tortures "Vansleb" a monk who was sent to Egypt about 1671 by King Louis 14th King of France, to Study the state of the churches and monasteries of the Nile valley said that on one wall of the Hanging church he found traces of an inscription by hand of "Amr. Ibn- El-As" asking the Muslim people not to cause any damage to this church.

The Mosque of Ahmad Ibn Tulun
One of the most important Islamic monuments in Egypt, Ahmad Ibn Tulun Mosque has some unique architectural and ornamental features. It has been built on an area of six and a half feddans, which makes it the largest mosque in Egypt. It also has additional extensions or ziyadahs to the West, North and South, similar to those in the Mosque of Samarra', with the purpose of protecting and isolating the Mosque from the outside noise. The extensions are sometimes used when the congregation is larger than the mosque's capacity. Piers in this mosque were used instead of columns, joined by pointed arches. The upper parts of the walls contain a large number of stucco windows each having different decorations and geometric forms. It has several entrances and still keeps six mihrabs. The most distinct feature of this Mosque is its old minaret with its spiral external stone staircase, identical to the minaret of the mosques of Samarra'. No wonder, for Ahmad Ibn Tulun grew up in Samarra' during the Abbasid period and when he declared Egypt an independent state in 245 Hegira, he copied the Iraqi decorations and styles of Samarra' in the construction of his own mosque.
The mosque is almost square, 162.25 by 161.5 meters. The prayer area itself is rectangular, 137.8 by 118m including the walls. In the middle, there is an open square courtyard 92.35 by 91 meters The mosque is surrounded on its southern, northern and western sides by an extension the walls, which are lower than those of the mosque (the walls of the mosque are 13 meters high and those of the annex are 8 meters). The two walls are 11 meters apart. The entrances to the extension are parallel to the entrances to the mosque, which number 42 all in all.
The Mosque of Ibn Tulun follows the same traditional plan of mosques: an open courtyard surrounded by four riwaqs, the largest of which is that of the qiblah which consists of five pointed aisles with five pointed arcades. Rows of arcades located in the qiblah riwaq and in the other riwaqs as well are distinguished by their rectangular adobe piers with engaged columns in the four corners. On top of these piers and between their arches there are small apertures with pointed arches to ease up pressure and allow light and air in the aisles of the riwaqs. The three other riwaqs have two aisles each.
One may also notice the existence of decorative stucco bands of the Samarra' type, especially close to the courtyard of the mosque, on the higher parts of the arches. A wooden band beneath the ceiling bears Kufic inscriptions of verses from the Holy Koran.
The qiblah riwaq has six niches, including the original niche found in the axis. The last niche is hollow, and of all its old elements only its stucco facade has remained. The cavity of the niche is cased with “marble and mosaic decoration with a strip of glass mosaic on top with Mamluk naskhi script on it. The niche's cap and the front of the arc are framed on the outside with colored inscribed wood. The niche itself has two columns on both sides, added by Sultan Hussam-ud-Din Lajin, who had sought refuge in this mosque when fleeing from a conspiracy. It was during this flight that he pledged to renovate the mosque if he survived. He not only survived but took over the rule of Egypt as well and fulfilled his pledge in 696 Hegira, by carrying out a comprehensive reconstruction of the mosque. Another flat niche known as Sayeda Nafissa niche is also believed to have been placed by him in the qiblah wall. There are four other flat niches some of which have decorations and inscriptions. The qiblah riwaq is also distinguished by a black basalt foundation plate which is considered one of the oldest memorial plates to be found today. Kufic inscriptions in high relief are engraved on this plate, which dates back to 265 Hegira, the date of completion of this mosque. The minbar, which was placed by the order of Hussam-ud-Din Lajin in 696 Hegira, as part of his restoration of the mosque, stands next to the niche. The cap of the niche and the dome in the middle of the courtyard covering the square building of the ablution fountain are also attributed to Sultan Lajin.

The Minaret of the Mosque:
The minaret stands in the northwestern extension, and consists of a square base with a middle cylindrical zone above it. A spiral staircase leading to the upper zone circles this middle part. The upper zone consists of two octagonal parts, the higher being smaller than the lower one. The minaret, about 40.44 meters high, has a polygonal finial with a censor- shaped cap. There is some disagreement, however, as to the date of construction of this minaret. The first two storeys most likely date back to the reign of Ahmad Ibn Tulun. While the two octagonal ones may date back to Sultan Lajin. The minaret is linked to the northern wall of the mosque by means of two horse-shoe arches, which were made by order of Sultan Lajin. This great mosque was restored by the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments in 1882.

The Mosque of Amru Ibn al-As
Amru Ibn al-As, laid the foundations of his great mosque in 21 Hegira, in compliance with the Muslim policy of establishing mosques in the conquered countries. Eighty of the Prophet's companions, including Az-Zubayr Ibn Al-'Awwam, Al-Miqdad, Ibadah Ibn s-Samit and Abi-al-Darda' and others, engaged in the construction of this mosque and in defining its qiblah. Al Maqrizi describes it in his Khutat as follows: "It is 50 cubits long, 30 cubits wide. Roads are paved all around it, and it has two doors facing Amru's house, another two doors to the North, and one to the West. The ceiling is extremely low, and the Mosque has no courtyard. In the summer, people would sit around it, and only seven cubits separated it from Amru's house."
It seems that the mosque's original plan was extremely simple, 28.90 meters long by 17.34 meters wide. The walls were built of adobe, while the ceiling was made of palm fronds and carried by columns of palm trunks. It had six doors: two to the North, two to the South, and two to the West. The mosque at that time overlooked the Nile and was surrounded by Al-Fustat's neighborhoods on the other sides. The mosque underwent various changes, innovations restorations and extensions in the course of time, the most important of which were:
 In 53 Hegira (672-A.D) it was reconstructed during the time of Musallamah Ibn Mukhallad of Ansar, the ruler of Egypt appointed by the Caliph Mu'awiyah. He ordered a shade or canopy to be built in the qiblah side. By that time the mosque had acquired an open courtyard and was furnished with mats. Four minarets were added in all four corners to announce prayers. A public square was also annexed to the North. Abdul-Aziz Ibn Marawan gave his orders to demolish the mosque in 79 Hegira (698 A.D) and had it rebuilt with new annexes. In 89 Hegira (707 A.D) its low ceiling was raised higher by order of Abdul-Malik Ibn Marawan.
 In 92 Hegira (710 A.D), the mosque was demolished once more by Qurrah Ibn Shurayk during the reign of the Caliph Al-Walid Ibn Abdul Malik, to be reconstructed after annexing Amru's house to the Mosque. A minbar was added to it in 94 Hegira, a hollow niche was installed in replacement of the old flat one, and the gates were increased in number. In 97 Hegira (715 A.D) a treasury (bayt ul-mal) as high as the fountain of the mosque was built by Usamah Ibn Zayd of Tunukh, who was the tax commissioner of Egypt. Further change executed later on.
 In 212 Hegira (827 A.D), a major reconstruction of the mosque was undertaken by Abdallah Ibn Tahir Ibn al-Hussayn, ruler of Egypt appointed by the Caliph Ma'mun. The boundaries of the mosque were drawn just as they still stand at present. The area of the mosque was enlarged on the western side to twice its earlier area. It was further increased to 120 by 100 meters after annexing the neighboring houses. The Green Board was set in the Mosque, and the ceiling was reconstructed. Thus the mosque had a large courtyard in the middle, surrounded by four riwaqs with 13 doors: 3 in the northwestern wall; 4 in the southwestern wall, 5 in the northeastern, and one door in the wall of the qiblah.
 Innovations continued thereafter, and when the Mosque was seriously damaged by the fire that swept Al-Fustat, it was renewed by the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Nasir Saladin in 568 Hegira (1171 A.D). Special care was given to the riwaq of the qiblah, and it was periodically maintained during the Mamluk period, during the reign of Sultan Zahir-Baybars in 666H. (1267 A.D), and Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun before it was damaged by the earthquake of 702 Hegira. It was renewed in 703 Hegira by Prince Salar, who also changed its construction to a certain extent. Of these changes only a few stucco windows to the West have remained. He also added another stucco niche outside the mosque.
 In 1212H.(1797 A.D), Prince Murad Muhammad Bey ordered a major reconstruction of the mosque. It was completely demolished and a huge sum of money was spent on the reconstruction, especially of the riwaq of qiblah. Columns were erected, decorations were completed, two minarets were built, the ceiling was entirely renewed in wood and the whole mosque was repainted. Thus once more it regained its previous glory. It was furnished with mats from Fayum and illuminated by candlesticks.7 However, shortly after, the maintenance of the mosque was neglected and it fell to ruin. Then the Ministry of Endowments, under the supervision of the Egyptian Antiquities Authority renovated the whole mosque with the exception the old riwaq of qiblah.
It is certain that the only original remnants of this Mosque are the marble columns and capitals in the qiblah riwaq and some of the architraves on which floral decorations were carved above the columns in the southeast of that riwaq, as well as some old windows that may date back to the 3rd Hegira century (9th century A.D), in addition to the renovations made in the qiblah riwaq by Murad Bey, whose architects made the arcade's arches vertical to the qiblah wall instead of being parallel to it. Two minarets still remain from Murad Bey's renovations, one of which stands next to the main entrance in the facade of the Mosque. The second floor of this minaret is octagonal in form with 8 blind arcades, with a shell-like cap. This minaret is based on squinches on top of a cylindrical body with small niches for lighting and ventilation. It is surrounded by a balcony with a wooden balustrade. On top of the minaret there is a copper crescent. As a result of these reconstructions carried out during the Mamluk period, the mosque, at present, has an open courtyard in the middle of which is a dome based on columns (replacing the old dome of the qiblah treasury), and surrounded by four riwaqs, the oldest of which is the qiblah one constructed by Murad Bey with six aisles. More aisles were added in later renovations. At the northeastern side stands the dome of Abdallah Ibn Amru. The opposite riwaq contains seven aisles, while the side riwaqs have four aisles each.
The Mosque of Amru Ibn al-As had in fact various functions, in addition to performing prayers. Various instruction circles were held in its riwaqs, in which various religious doctrines were taught. The mosque included the Muslim treasury and a bureau for settling disputes, as well as many other religious functions. It is noteworthy that the Mosque was given various names, such as the Old Mosque, the Mosque of Egypt, the Mosque of Ahl-ur-Rayah (banner holders), the Mosque of Fateh (conquest), Taj ul-Jawami' (the crown of mosques), and Matla' al-Anwar ai-Lawami' (the source of shining lights).

The Mosque of Muhammad Ali 
This mosque, which is located within the walls of the Citadel, is the gem of Islamic architecture in Egypt, with its high dome and two elegant minarets. It has also been known as the Citadel Mosque or the Alabaster Mosque. The construction and decoration of this mosque took quite a long time. They were initiated by Muhammad Ali in (1246 H. /1830 A.D), and it was added to by Khedive Abbass I and later by Ismail Pasha in 1863. In (1296 H. /1879 A.D) Tawfik Pasha restored the marble courtyard of the mosque. In 1935 the original great dome was pulled down when some fractures appeared in it, and it was rebuilt.
The construction of this mosque reflects the great influence of the Byzantine art and decoration styles. Its design basically consists of a large rectangle divided into two major divisions. The first, the main eastern one, is the prayers place covered by a large dome. The transitional zones of this dome are spherical triangular pendentives. Each side of the square on which the dome is built is 41 meters long. The dome itself is 52meters high and its diameter is 21 meters. The dome is surrounded by four satellite half- domes, and smaller square zones with domes at the corners. The four large arches of the main dome are based on four square piers. This dome covering the prayer place may be reached at present through an entrance in the northwestern wall, which overlooks the courtyard of the mosque. Immediately to the right of this entrance lies the marble tomb of Muhammad Ali, surrounded by a copper balustrade, gilded and decorated with geometric and floral shapes in addition to some inscriptions. The platform of the caller to prayer is next to the western wall, and has eight marble columns with a copper balustrade all around. This can be reached through the upper passage which surrounds the mosque. The mihrab (prayer niche) of the Mosque is distinguished by its alabaster brought from the town of Bani-Swief in Upper Egypt. Next to it stands the marble minbar, which was ordered by king Faruq and the older wooden minbar with golden decorations. The mosque has been ornamented with various elements influenced by the European Rococo art as well as with Arabesque decorations in the corners of the domes and arches. The inscriptions on the domes and arches were made by the well- known calligrapher of the time, Amin Azmiri. There are some other inscriptions on the windows, which contain poetic verses from the well- known poem "Al Burda" in the praise of the prophet Muhammad. The major feature of the prayer place is the alabaster casing of the walls.
The second division of the courtyard is 54 by 53 meters and is surrounded by one riwaq covered by several adjoining domes. In the center of the courtyard stands the dome covering the ablution fountain built in (1263H. /1844 A.D). It is supported by eight marble columns. The big clock which was dedicated by Louis Philippe, King of France, to Muhammad Ali in (1262H. /1845 A.D), has been placed inside the copper tower located at the western riwaq of the courtyard. The western facade of the courtyard has two elegant minarets each 84 meters high built in the Ottoman style.

The Mosque of Sultan Nassir Mohamed
This mosque, located at the Citadel close to the mosque built by Muhammad Ali later on, was built on the ruins of an older mosque dating to Sultan Al-Kamil Muhammad of the Ayyubid dynasty. It was also known as the Mosque of Khutbah (sermon) or the An-Nasiri Mosque. Its dimensions are 63meters by 57meters, and it was restored by the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments in 1947.
The main entrance of this mosque lies in the middle of the northwestern wall. The foundation plate indicates the date of its foundation to be 718 Hegira. A second entrance is found in the northeastern side. In the middle of the mosque there is an open courtyard 35 meters by 23 meters, surrounded by four riwaqs, the biggest of which is that of the qiblah consisting of four aisles with a large dome in the middle covering a square area of side 16.77meters. The dome rests on red granite columns and is covered with green ceramic tiles. In the middle of the qiblah wall there is a large hollow mihrab with two minor niches cased with marble and mosaic. Each of the three other riwaqs consists of two aisles. The mosque has two minarets, one on the main entrance, with a square base and two cylindrical storeys ending with a round balcony and a conical finial. The neck of the dome is covered with blue ceramic. The second minaret, located at the northeastern corner of the mosque, is marked with an octagonal pavilion with a helmet covered with green ceramic.

The Nilometer at Rodah Island
The Nilometer, built in 247 Hegira (861 A.D) during the reign o the Abbasid Caliph Mutawakil-ala-Allah, is considered an important Islamic monument in Egypt. It contains significant architectural elements and calligraphic inscriptions. According to the historian Ibn-Khallikan, it was Ahmad Ibn Mohammed al-Hasib who built it, and it was completed in the Arab month of Rajab, 247 Hegira, as mentioned earlier. The name of Caliph Mutawakil was inscribed on one of the friezes inside the Nilometer, but it was removed by the architects of Ahmad Ibn Tulun when the Nilometer was renovated in 259 Hegira. It was restored in 485 Hegira, (1092 A.D) by Badr al-Jammali, minister of the Fatimid Caliph Mustansir. The mosque, known as Al-Miqyas (the mosque of the Nilometer), was built next to it. Al-Zahir Baybars built a dome over the well of the Nilometer, which was restored later by Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaytbay. During the Ottoman period many other renovations were carried out. More recently the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments restored it 1925 following the collapse of the Nilometer's base. It was then that the pyramidal cover, presently found on top, was added.
The Nilometer consists of a graded marble column located in the middle of a square stone well 6.20 meters deep and has a staircase going round the internal walls leading to the bottom. The Nilometer is linked to the Nile by 3 tunnel vaults near the bottom and these vaults are based on fluted columns with Corinthian capitals an reversed pommel bases. The internal walls of the well and the arches bear calligraphic inscriptions of some verses of the Holy Koran in Kufic script, in addition to some inscriptions dealing with cultivation, irrigation and water. These latter are regarded as the oldest Kufic inscriptions found on monuments in Muslim Egypt, while the pointed arches are among the oldest of the type to be found in Egypt.
The graded octagonal column of the Nilometer has cubit inch-ruler marks to determine the water level in the well. The top o the column has the number 19 inscribed on it, which means 19 cubits The column had been set in the middle of the well with two arches based on the inside walls of the well. However, now the column is based on a horizontal